Tchernigoff, Tula, Tver, Ufa, Vilna, Vitebsk, Viatka, Vladimir, Volhynia, Vologda, Voronezh, Yaroslavl. Poland formed 10 provinces: Kalisz, Kielce, Lomza, Lublin, Piotrkov, Plock, Radom, Siedlce, Suwalki, and Warsaw. Finland, eight provinces: Abo-Bjorneborg, Kuopio, Nyland, St. Michel, Tavastehus, Uleaborg, Vasa, and Viborg. There were also certain popular divisions of Russia, as Great Russia (in the center), Little Russia (in the S. W.), White Russia (in the N. W.). Asiatic Russia was divided into: Northern Caucasia, Transcaucasia, Transcaspia, Kirghiz Steppes, Turkestan, Western Siberia, Eastern Siberia, Amur and Maritime provinces. St. Petersburg and Moscow were the capitals of the empire.
In 1920 the greater part of the former Russian empire, including Siberia, was under the rule of the Bolsheviks. A number of states, however, had evolved and were maintaining themselves on the borders of the old empire. Two of these, Finland and Poland, had been formally recognized and were well established as independent governments. Six others, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Esthonia, Georgia, Latvia, and Lithuania had received some degree of recognition from the allied countries, while the Ukraine had been recognized by Poland. As to the condition of Daghestan, Kuban and Terek, little definite was known, although in each of these provinces an independent republic had been set up.
General Description.—European Russia consists almost wholly of immense plains, the Valdai Hills, between St. Petersburg and Moscow, averaging 500 feet and never exceeding 1,200 feet above sea-level, forming the only elevated region of the interior and an important watershed. The mountains of Taurida, lining the S. shores of the Crimea, have a height of about 4,000 feet; the Caucasus, running from the Black Sea to the Caspian, reach the height of 18,500 feet; the Urals, stretching from the Caspian to the Arctic Ocean and separating European from Asiatic Russia, have their greatest height below 7,000 feet. Beyond the Urals are the vast Siberian plains. Russia is watered by numerous rivers, some running a course of thousands of miles. The Petchora, the Mezene, Northern Dwina, and Onega are the principal rivers of European Russia which send their waters to the Arctic Ocean; the Neva, Volkhoff, Svir, Narova, Velikaya, Duna, Niemen, and Vistula belong to the Baltic basin; the Black Sea basin comprises the Pruth, Dniester, Dnieper, and the Don; while the Caspian receives besides other rivers the Volga, the largest of all Russian rivers. Altogether Russia and Poland have 49,000 miles of navigable rivers. Asiatic Russia has also a number of very large rivers, as the Obi, Yenisei, and Lena in Siberia, and the Amur toward the Chinese frontier. This complete river system is of incalculable value to Russia, as by its means internal communication is carried on. Canals connect the navigable rivers, so as to form continuous waterways; there being 500 miles of canals and 717 of canalized rivers. River steam navigation has been much developed of recent years. The lakes are also on a gigantic scale. Lake Ladoga, near Petrograd, is the largest in Europe. Other large lakes in Europe are those of Onega, Peipus, and Ilmen. In Asia there is the Sea of Aral larger than any of those mentioned, followed by Baikal, Balkash, and others. The Caspian Sea now also forms almost a Russian lake. From the extent of the plains and steppes, the swamps, moors, desert wastes, and forests of Russia, the scenery as a whole is very monotonous.
Climate and Soil.—As may be expected from its vastness this empire offers soils and climates of almost every variety. Extreme cold in winter and extreme heat in summer are, however, a general characteristic of Russian climates. As regards soil, large sections of Russia are sandy, barren wastes and vast morasses. The most productive portion is that between the Baltic and the Gulf of Finland, and the Volga, on the N. and E.; Prussia, Austria, etc., on the W.; and the Black Sea on the S. It has, generally speaking, a soft black mold of great depth, mostly on a sandy bottom, easily wrought, and very fertile. The more southern portion of Siberia, as far E. as the river Lena, has, for the most part, a fertile soil, and produces, notwithstanding the severity of the climate, nearly all kinds of grain.
Vegetable Products, Agriculture.—Boundless forests exist, the area of the forest land in Europe being 42 per cent. of the total area. The fir, larch, alder, and birch predominate. In the S. forests are less abundant and the tracts around the Black Sea and the Caspian, and the immense steppes of the S. and E., are almost wholly destitute of wood. Most of the forest land before the World War was under government control. Agriculture is the chief pursuit of the bulk of the population. The chief crops are rye, wheat, barley, oats, hemp, flax, and tobacco.
Zoölogy.—Among wild animals may be mentioned the bear, the wolf, wild hog, elk, and various animals which are hunted for their furs. Wild fowl abound, particularly near the mouths of rivers. In the Arctic Ocean vast num-
