TURKEY 42 TURKEY ing the hillsides, drove the Turks back and succeeded in obtaining a foothold. For the months following, almost con- ' tinuous fighting went on, through which the Turks lost considerable ground. In the beginning of September, however, they began vigorous counter-attacks and succeeded in driving back the Allied troops at a high cost in killed and wounded. The attempt to capture the peninsula persisted and would probably have succeeded, but for serious blunders in the operation. In the autumn of 1916 it became obvious that the expedition was a failure, and the British troops were withdrawn in December. This con- cluded the most disastrous series of mili- tary operations carried on by the Allies during the first period of the war. In the meantime, the campaign in Mesopotamia was well under way. On June 3, 1916, the British captured Amara, 75 miles above Kurna. Kut-el-Amara, a strongly fortified post, still remained in the hands of the Turks. A four days' battle, which ended on Sept. 29, was ended by the defeat of the Turkish armies ?<nd the capture ot Kut-el-Amara. The British, under General Townsend, now engaged upon a campaign for the capture of Bagdad. The advance began in the early days of October, and was strongly opposed. The Turks retired until they reached the vicinity near Ctesiphon, where they were strongly intrenched. After a severe struggle, the Turks were obliged to fall back. They received re-enforcements, however, and repelled the British forces. Further re-enforcements having been received, they were able to continue to force back the British troops until they finally reached Kut-el-Amara, with a loss of fully one-third of the strength with which they had started. Here the Brit- ish were able to intrench themselves and hold back the Turkish army. They were, however, cut off from communication with the outside world. Attempts were made to send relief, and British forces defeated the Turkish army near Kut- el-Amara, on Jan. 6, 1916. The con- ditions of the country, however, made it impossible for the troops to advance farther. They were subject to various attacks by the Turks and finally the British commander decided to move up the left bank of the Tigris and attack the Turkish position from the rear. The movement failed, and the British were obliged to withdraw. Attempts were made to relieve Kut during the next months. On April 8 a sharp battle was fought at Sanna-i-yat. Here the British were unable to advance. By this time the besieged army at Kut-el-Amara had reached the point where food had be- come scarce, and physical endurance was well nigh exhausted. On April 28, 1916, the British garrison surrendered to the Turks, thus ending the siege which lasted 143 days. The surrender caused a deep sensa- tion throughout all the countries at war, and the British Government determined to make a further and more extensive attempt to capture Bagdad. A large army was gathered under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Maud. On Feb. 26, 1917, Kut-el-Amara was captured after a stubborn resistance. The British continued steadily on up the Tigris river, although the Turks re- sisted with the utmost firmness. On March 11, 1917, Bagdad surrendered. Large quantities of stores and war ma* terials fell into the hands of the British. Campaigns continued in the Caucasus during the progress of the Mesopotamia!! operations. Turkey raised a large army for the purpose of seizing Kars and Tiflis and controlling the great Caspian oil fields. This army numbered about 140,000 men and was opposed by a Rus- sian army of about 110,000. Operations began on Nov. 20, 1914, and were carried on with varying success during the following months. The Turks were decisively defeated in the second week of January, 1915, and the Turkish offensive in the Caucasus was effectively checked for the time being. Attempts by the Russians to cainry on operations farther south were defeated by strong Turkish forces. The Russian armies were re-en- forced, however, and checked further advances on the part of the Turks. Hos- tilities continued in Persia and the Cau- casus during the first months of 1915. On May 23 the Russians occupied the city of Van and other places. By the autumn of this year, Russia was able to devote more strength to the Caucasus front and under the direction of Grand Duke Nicholas, a campaign was begxin for the ca;pture of Erzerum. The city was taken m the second week of Febru- ary, 1916. The Russian advance con- tinued toward Trebizond, the Turkish base of supplies on the Black Sea. On April 18 the city was captured. The larger part of Turkish Armenia^ was now in Russian hands. The Russians con- tinued minor operations, but in the spring of 1917 disturbances in Russia, following the revolution, prevented ac- tive military operations. Following the capture of Bagdad, the British forces proceeded with the con- quest of Syria and Palestine. Prior to the beginning of this campaign, it was finally announced that the country would
