noxious to the government were banished. The revolutions in Paris in 1830 caused much excitement in Belgium, and in August of that year there was an outbreak in Brussels, speedily followed by similar manifestations of discontent in other cities of Belgium. Insurrection led to open warfare; Brussels, Mons, Ghent, Liege, and other places passed into the hands of the Belgians, and by the end of October only Antwerp remained in control of the Dutch. General Chassé, the Dutch commander, occupied the citadel of Antwerp, whence he subjected the city to a two days' bombardment, doing great damage to property. Belgium had already formed a provisional government, and after the bombardment of Antwerp the quarrel was appealed to a conference of the European powers at London. The conference ordered an armistice and the retirement of the troops of Belgium and Holland into their own countries, acknowledged the independence of Belgium, bound her to the payment of a portion of the state debt, and left her to the management of her own affairs independently of Holland.
In July, 1831, Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was crowned king of the Belgians under the title of Leopold I. Soon after his coronation he found himself burdened with war, as the Dutch in violation of the armistice had sent an army across the frontier. With an unformed government, a hastily organized army, and a kingdom in disorder, the new king felt unable to oppose the invaders, and in his dilemma he appealed to France for aid. The aid was promptly given; Marshal Gérard, accompanied by the Duke of Orleans, marched into Belgium with 60,000 men, whereupon the Dutch retired to their own boundaries.
The conference of the powers determined to compel the Dutch to give up the citadel of Antwerp, which they still held. Accordingly the army of Marshal Gérard advanced upon Antwerp, and a combined English and French fleet entered the Scheldt to co-operate with the
