land determined to foster her commerce regardless of the consequences to China or its people. The war continued until 1842, when the treaty of peace was signed in front of Nankin. By the terms of the treaty China paid an indemnity of $21,000,000, opened the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai to foreigners, and ceded the island of Hong Kong in perpetuity to England.
England in 1839 ventured upon the Afghan war, which, at first successful, terminated in disaster; of 3,849 soldiers and about 12,000 camp followers, composing the army of General Elphinstone, only one European (Dr. Brydon) and four natives succeeded in reaching the British lines. General Sale's brigade was less unfortunate, as it held Jellalabad until a fresh division could be sent from India to enable it to retire without being destroyed. The attempt of England upon Afghanistan ended in 1842. In the following year occurred the Scinde war, resulting in the annexation of Scinde to the British possessions; and in 1843, also, came the Gwalior war, in which the fortress of Gwalior, the "Gibraltar of the East," fell into British hands. In 1845 began the Sikh war, of which more will be said elsewhere.
In 1831-33 Mohammed Ali Pasha, the sultan's viceroy in Egypt, waged a war against Turkey in the effort to obtain complete independence. He conquered Syria and a great part of Asia Minor, and would have captured Constantinople if the great powers had not interfered to prevent the possible destruction of the Ottoman power in Europe. A similar war took place in 1839, in which Mohammed Ali Pasha fought to secure hereditary power. England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia interfered for the protection of Turkey and expelled the Egyptians from Syria; Mohammed Ali was made hereditary viceroy of Egypt, but his territory was reduced through the loss of nearly all that he had gained in the first war against Turkey.
