CHAPTER XI.
CAPTURE OF THE PEIHO FORTS AND PEKIN—1858-60.
The empire of China claims an antiquity of about five thousand years, but for the first thousand years of this period its history is of a mythical character. According to its chronology, one of its early rulers is said to have reigned one hundred and fourteen years, and another is credited with the conduct of affairs for one hundred and forty years, during which he introduced medical science and agriculture. Through many dynasties China was troubled with external and internal wars, chiefly the latter, but in all ages down to the present she maintained her seclusion from the rest of the world. In the seventeenth century, the Dutch and other European nations endeavored to gain admission to the country, but their efforts were successfully resisted, though they were allowed to trade under numerous restrictions in the waters near Canton. England, Russia, and other countries sent embassies at different times, the East India Company had a trading concession, but all attempts at official and commercial intercourse were practically unsuccessful. About 1834 began the opium dispute, which led to troubles between England and China. These troubles grew into wars, which resulted unfavorably to the Chinese, and led to the opening of various ports, not only for commercial purposes, but for the permanent residence of foreign merchants.
By the treaty of Nankin in 1843, China was to pay to
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