» APPENDIX 531 vius, Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter, 1897 ; Ranke, Weltgeschichte, vol. 8. For military history, C. Oman, History of the Art of War, vol. 2, books iv. and v. For the Normans : G. de Blasiis, La insurrezione pugliese e la eonquista Normanna nel seeolo xi., 18(54 ; J. A'. Barlow, The Normans in Southern Italy, 188(> ; O. Delarc, Les Normands en Italie, 1883 ; L. von Heinemann, Geschichte der Normannen in Unter-Italieii und Sizilien, vol. i. . 1893. For the Crusades : F. Wilken, Geschichte der Kreiizziige, 1807-32 ; Michaud, Histoire des Croisades (in 6 vols.), 1825 (Eng. tr. in 3 vols., by "W. Robson, 1852) ; H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges, ISSl (ed. 2) ; B. von Kugler, Geschichte der Kreuzziige, 1880, and Studien ziir Gesch. des 2ten Kreuzzuges, 186fi ; Riihricht. Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem, 1898 ; H. Prutz, Kultur- geschichte der Kreuzziige, 1883 ; Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades ; G. Le Strange, Palestine under the jMuslims, 1890. For the institutions and organisa- tion of the Kingdom : G. Dodu, Hist, des institutions monarchiques dans le royaume latin de .J^r., 1894. 2. SARACEN COINAGE— (P. 5) The following account of the introduction of a separate coinage by the Omay- yads is taken from Sir. Stanley Lane-Poole's Coins and Medals, p. 164 sqq. " It took the Arabs half a century to discover the need of a separate coinage of their own. At first they were content to borrow their gold and copper currency from the Byzantine Empire, which they had driven out of Syria, and their silver coins from the Sassauian kings of Pensia, whom the}- had overthrown at the battles of Kadisia and Nehavend. The Byzantine gold served them till the seventy-sixth year of the Flight, when a new, but theologically unsound and con- sequentl}^ evanescent, type was invented, bearing the effigy of the reigning Khalif instead of that of Heraclius, and Arabic instead of Greek inscriptions. So, too, the Sassanian silver pieces were left unaltered, save for the addition of a gover- nor's name in Pehlvi letters. The Khalif 'Aly or one of his lieutenants seems to have attempted to inaugurate a pureh' Muslim coinage, exactly resembling that which was afterwards adopted ; but onh' one examjjle of this issue is known to exist, in the Paris collection, together with three other silver coins struck at Damascus and Merv between a.h. GO and 70, of a precisely similar type. These four coins are clearly early and ephemeral attempts at the introduction of a dis- tinctive Mohammadan coinage, and their recent discover}- in no way upsets the received Muslim tradition that it was the Khalif 'Abd-El-Melik who, in the year of the Flight 76 (or, on the evidence of the coins themselves, 77), inaugurated the regular Muslim coinage which was thenceforward issued from all the mints of the empire, so long as the dynastj- endured, and which gave its general character to the whole eurrenc}- of the kingdoms of Islam. The copper coinage founded on the Byzantine passed through more and earlier phases than the gold and silver, but it always held [an] insignificant place in the JIu.slim curreuc}*. ..." The gold and silver coins of 'Abd-El-]Ielik "both bear the same formula; of faith : on the obverse, in the area, ' There is no god but God alone. He hath no partner ' ; around which is arranged a marginal inscription, ' Mohammad is the apostle of God, who sent him with the guidance and religion of truth, that he might make it triumph over all other religions in spite of the idolaters,' the gold stopping at ' other religions '. This inscription occurs on the reverse of the silver instead of the obverse, while the date inscription, which is found on the reverse of the gold, appears on the obverse of the silver. The reverse area declares that ' God is One, God is the Eternal : He begetteth not, nor is begotten ' ; here the gold ends, but the .silver continues, 'and there is none like unto Him'. The margin of the gold runs, ' In the name of God : the Dinir was struck in the year seven and s-eventy ' ; the silver substituting ' Dirhem ' for ' Dinjlr, ' and in- serting the place of issue immediately after the word Dirhem, e.g., ' El-Andalus
