46 INDIA. majority of subsequent geographers, from Ptolemv. Subsequent to this date, there are few works which fall within the range of classical geography, or which have added any inforaiation of real value on the subject of India ; while most of theni have borrowed from Ptolemy, whose comprehensive work was soon a test-book in the hands of learned men. From Agathemerus (at the end of the second century) and Dionysius Periegetes (towards the end of the third century) some few particulars maybe gleaned: — as for instance, from the latter, the establish- ment of the Indo-Scythi along the banks of the Indus, in Sciiuh and Guzerat ; and, from a work known by the name of Perlplus Maris Er!/thraei (the date of which, though late, is not certainly determined), some interesting notices of the shores of the Indian Ocean. Festus Avienus, whose para- phrase of Dionysius Periegetes supplies some lacunae in other parts of his work, adds nothing of interest to his metrical account of Indian Geography. Such may serve as a concise outline of the pro- gress of knowledge in ancient times relative to India. Before, however, we proceed to describe the country itself under the various heads of mountains, rivers, provinces, and cities, it will be well to say a few words on the origin of the name India, with some notice of the subdivisions which were in use among the earlier geographers, but which we have not thought it convenient in this place to perpetuate. The names Indus, India, are no doubt derived from the Sanscrit appellation of the river, Sindhu, which, in the plural form, means also the people who dwelt along its banks. The adjoining countries have adopted this name, with slight modilications: thus, Heiidu is the form in the Zend or old Persian, Hoddu in the Hebrew (^Esther, i. 1, viii. 9). The Greek language softened down the word by omitting the A, hence "Ii'Sos, "Iv^ia ; though in some instances the native name vi'as preserved almost unchanged, as in the 'S.'lv&os of the Periplus JIaris Erythraei. Pliny beai-s testimony to the native form, when he says,
- ' PkIus incolis Sindus appellatus" (vi. 20. s. 23).
The great divisions of India which have been usually adopted are those of Ptolemy (vii. 1. § 1), into, — (^l) India intra Ganr/em, a vast district, which was bounded, according to that geographer, on the W. by the Paropamisadae, Arachosia, and Gedrosia; on the N. by the Imaus, in the direction of the Sog- diani and Sacae; on the E. by the Ganges, and on the S. by a part of the Indian Ocean : and (2) hdia extra Gangem (Ptol. vii. 2. § 1), which was bounded on the W. by the Ganges; on the N. by Scythia and Serica; on the E. by the Sinae, and by a line extended from their country to the MiyaKos KoXiroi (^Gidf of Siam); and on the S. by the Indian Ocean, and a line drawn from the island of IMenutliias (Ptol. vii. 2. § 1), whence it appears that Ptolemy considered that the Ganges flowed nearly due N. and S. We have considered that this division is too arbitraiy to be adopted here; we merely state it as the one proposed by Ptolemy and long current among geographers. The later ecclesiastical writers made use of other terms, as t) ivBorepo} "IvSia, in which they included even Arabia (Socrat. H. E. i. 19 ; Theod. i. 23 ; Theoph. i. 35), and ?; «(rx«ri7 "IfSia (Sozomen, ii. 23). The principal mountains of India (considered as a whole) were : — the eastern portion of the Paropamisus (ir Hindu- KusK), the Imaus (Jlaimava?), and the Emodus (now known by the generic name of the Ilivuilaya.') To the extreme E, were the Montes INDIA, Semanthini, the boundary of the land of tlie Sinae, the jIontes Damassi, and the Bepyrrhus M. (probably the present Naraka M.). An extension of the JI. Damassi is the ihieandi-us M. (now Muiti-Mnra). In India intra Gangem Ptolemy mentions many mountains, the names of which can with diiliculty lie supplied with their modern representatives: lus the Orudii M., in the S. extremity of the land between the Tyndis and the Chaberus; the Uxentus M., to the N. of them; the Adisathms M.; the Bittigo M. (probably the range now known as the Ghats'), and the M. Vindius (unquestionably the present l^ind- hija), which extend NE. and SV. along the N. bank of the JVerbudda ; M. Sardonix (probably the present Sautpura^ and M. Apocopa (perhaps the present Aravelli). The principal promontories in India are: — in the extreme E., Promontorium Magnum, the western side of the Sinus Magnus; Malaei Colon, on the S. coast of the golden peninsula; Promontorium Aureae Chersonesi, the southern termination of the Sinus Sabaracus, on the western side of the Chersonesus; Cory or Calligicum, between the S. Argaricus and the S. Colchicus, near the SW. end of the peninsula of Himlostdn ; Comaria (now C. Comorin), the most southern point of Ilindostdn ; Calae Carias (or Calli- caris), between the to™s Anamagara and Mu/iris; Simylla (or Semylla, the southern end of the S. Barygazenus, perhaps the present C. St. John), and Maleuni. In the same direction from E. to W. are the fol- lowing gulfs and bays: — the Sinus Magnus (now (iw//* ofSiam); S. Perimulicus, and Sabaricus, on the E. and W. side of the Chersonesus Aurea; S. Gangeti- cus (^Bay of Bengal), S. Argaricus, opposite the N. end of Taprobane (probably Palks Bag) ; S. Col- chicus (^Bag of Manaar); S. Barygazenus {^Gidf of Cambag), and S. Cautlii (most likely the Gulf of Cutch). The rivers of India are very numerous, and many of them of great size. The most imjwrtant (from E. to W.) are the Dorias (^Salven ?) and Doanas (the Ii-rawaddg), the Chrysoana, Besynga, the Tocosanna (probably the present Arrahan), and the Catabeda (now Curmsul); the Ganges, with many tributaries, themselves large rivers. [Ganges.] Along the W. side of the Bag of Bengal are the Adamns (^Brahmini), Dosaron (^Mahamidi), Maesolus (^Goddvuri), Tyndis {Kistmt), and the Chaberis or Chaberus (the Cdveri). Along the shores of the Indian Ocean are the Nanaguna {Tartg), the Na- madus (Xarmadd ovNerbudda), and lastly the Indus, with its several tributaries. [Indus.] The towns in India known to the ancients were very numerous; yet it is remarkable that but few details have been given concerning them in the different authors of whose works fragments still remain. Generally, these writei's seem to have been content with a simple list of the names, adding, in some instances, that such a place was an im- portant mart for commerce. The probability is, that, even so late as Ptolemy, few cities had reached suf- ficient importance to command the productions of an extensive surrounding countiy; and that, in fact, with one or two exceptions, the towns which he and others enumerate were little more than the head places of small districts, and in no sense capitals of great empires, such as Ghazna, Delhi, and Calcutta have become in later periods of Indian history. Be- ginning from the extreme E., the principal states and towns mentioned in the ancient writei's are: Periniula
