in only 40 cases out of 100. Simpson got similar results at Karasjok; the rise in a+ and a− with increased wind velocity seemed, however, larger in winter than in summer. Simpson observed a fall in q for wind velocities exceeding 2 on Beaufort’s scale. On the top of the Sonnblick, Conrad observed a slight increase of a± as the wind velocity increased up to 20 km. per hour, but for greater velocities up to 80 km. per hour no further decided rise was observed.
At Karasjok, treating summer and winter independently, Simpson (10) found a+ and a− both increase in a nearly linear relation with temperature, from below −20° to +15° C. For example, when the temperature was below −20° mean values were 0·76 for a+ and 0·91 for a−; for temperatures between −10° and −5° the corresponding means were 2·45 and 2·82; while for temperatures between +10° and +15° they were 4·68 and 5·23. Simpson found no certain temperature effect on the value of q. At Trieste, from 470 days when the wind velocity did not exceed 20 km. per hour, Mazelle (47) found somewhat analogous results for temperatures from 0° to 30° C.; a−, however, increased faster than a+, i.e. q increased with temperature. When he considered all days irrespective of wind velocity, Mazelle found the influence of temperature obliterated. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found a± increase appreciably as temperature rose up to 4° or 5° C.; but at higher temperatures a decrease set in.
Observations on the Sonnblick agree with those at low-level stations in showing a diminution of dissipation with increase of relative humidity. The decrease is most marked as saturation approaches. At Trieste, for example, for relative humidities between 90 and 100 the mean a± was less than half that for relative humidities under 40. With certain dry winds, notably Föhn winds in Austria and Switzerland, dissipation becomes very high. Thus at Innsbruck Defant (45) found the mean dissipation on days of Föhn fully thrice that on days without Föhn. The increase was largest for a+, there being a fall of about 15% in q. In general, a+ and a− both tend to be less on cloudy than on bright days. At Kiel (53) and Trieste the average value of q is considerably less for wholly overcast days than for bright days. At several stations enjoying a wide prospect the dissipation has been observed to be specially high on days of great visibility when distant mountains can be recognized. It tends on the contrary to be low on days of fog or rain.
The results obtained as to the relation between dissipation and barometric pressure are conflicting. At Kremsmünster, Zölss (42) found dissipation vary with the absolute height of the barometer, a± having a mean value of 1·36 when pressure was below the normal, as against 1·20 on days when pressure was above the normal. He also found a± on the average about 10% larger when pressure was falling than when it was rising. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found dissipation increase decidedly as the absolute barometric pressure was larger, and he found no difference between days of rising and falling barometer. At Trieste, Mazelle (47) found no certain connexion with absolute barometric pressure. Dissipation was above the average when cyclonic conditions prevailed, but this seemed simply a consequence of the increased wind velocity. At Mattsee, E. R. von Schweidler (46) found no connexion between absolute barometric pressure and dissipation, also days of rising and falling pressure gave the same mean. At Kiel, K. Kaehler (53) found a+ and a− both greater with rising than with falling barometer.
V. Conrad and M. Topolansky (54) have found a marked connexion at Vienna between dissipation and ozone. Regular observations were made of both elements. Days were grouped according to the intensity of colouring of ozone papers, 0 representing no visible effect, and 14 the darkest colour reached. The mean values of a+ and a− answering to 12 and 13 on the ozone scale were both about double the corresponding values answering to 0 and 1 on that scale.
17. A charged body in air loses its charge in more than one way. The air, as is now known, has always present in it ions, some carrying a positive and others a negative charge, and those having the opposite sign to the charged body are attracted and tend to discharge it. The rate of loss of charge is thus largely dependent on the extent to which ions are present in the surrounding air. It depends, however, in addition on the natural mobility of the ions, and also on the opportunities for convection. Of late years many observations have been made of the ionic charges in air. The best-known apparatus for the purpose is that devised by Ebert. A cylinder condenser has its inner surface insulated and charged to a high positive or negative potential. Air is drawn by an aspirator between the surfaces, and the ions having the opposite sign to the inner cylinder are deposited on it. The charge given up to the inner cylinder is known from its loss of potential. The volume of air from which the ions have been extracted being known, a measure is obtained of the total charge on the ions, whether positive or negative. The conditions must, of course, be such as to secure that no ions shall escape, otherwise there is an underestimate. I+ is used to denote the charge on positive ions, I- that on negative ions. The unit to which they are ordinarily referred is 1 electrostatic unit of electricity per cubic metre of air. For the ratio of the mean value of I+ to the mean value of I−, the letter Q is employed by Gockel (55), who has made an unusually complete study of ionic charges at Freiburg. Numerous observations were also made by Simpson (10)—thrice a day—at Karasjok, and von Schweidler has made a good many observations about 3 p.m. at Mattsee (46) in 1905, and Seewalchen (38) in 1904. These will suffice to give a general idea of the mean values met with.
| Station. | Authority. | I+ | I− | Q |
| Freiburg Karasjok Mattsee Seewalchen |
Gockel Simpson von Schweidler von Schweidler |
0·34 0·38 0·35 0·45 |
0·24 0·33 0·29 0·38 |
1·41 1·17 1·19 1·17 |
Gockel’s mean values of I+ and Q would be reduced to 0·31 and 1·38 respectively if his values for July—which appear abnormal—were omitted. I+ and I− both show a considerable range of values, even at the same place during the same season of the year. Thus at Seewalchen in the course of a month’s observations at 3 p.m., I+ varied from 0·31 to 0·67, and I− from 0·17 to 0·67.
There seems a fairly well marked annual variation in ionic contents, as the following figures will show. Summer and winter represent each six months and the results are arithmetic means of the monthly values.
| Freiburg. | Karasjok. | |||||
| I+ | I− | Q | I+ | I− | Q | |
| Winter Summer |
0·29 0·39 |
0·21 0·28 |
1·49 1·34 |
0·33 0·44 |
0·27 0·39 |
1·22 1·13 |
If the exceptional July values at Freiburg were omitted, the summer values of I+ and Q would become 0·33 and 1·25 respectively.
18. Diurnal Variation.—At Karasjok Simpson found the mean values of I+ and I− throughout the whole year much the same between noon and 1 p.m. as between 8 and 9 a.m. Observations between 6 and 7 p.m. gave means slightly lower than those from the earlier hours, but the difference was only about 5% in I+ and 10% in I−. The evening values of Q were on the whole the largest. At Freiburg, Gockel found I+ and I− decidedly larger in the early afternoon than in either the morning or the late evening hours. His greatest and least mean hourly values and the hours of their occurrence are as follows:—
| Winter. | Summer. | ||||||
| I+ | I− | I+ | I− | ||||
| Max. 0·333 2 p.m. |
Min. 0·193 7 p.m. |
Max. 0·242 2 p.m. |
Min. 0·130 8 p.m. |
Max. 0·430 4 p.m. |
Min. 0·244 9 to 10 p.m. |
Max. 0·333 4 p.m. |
Min. 0·192 9 to 10 p.m. |
Gockel did not observe between 10 p.m. and 7 a.m.
19. Ionization seems to increase notably as temperature rises. Thus at Karasjok Simpson found for mean values:—
| Temp. less than −20° | −10° to −5° | 10° to 15° |
| I+ = 0·18, I− = 0·16 | I+ = 0·36, I− = 0·30 | I+ = 0·45, I− = 0·43 |
Simpson found no clear influence of temperature on Q. Gockel observed similar effects at Freiburg—though he seems doubtful whether the relationship is direct—but the influence of temperature on I+ seemed reduced when the ground was covered with snow. Gockel found a diminution of ionization with rise of relative humidity. Thus for relative humidities between 40 and 50 mean values were 0·306 for I+ and 0·219 for I−; whilst for relative humidities between 90 and 100 the corresponding means were respectively 0·222 and 0·134. At Karasjok, Simpson found a slight decrease in I− as relative humidity increased, but no certain change in I+. Specially large values of I+ and I− have been observed at high levels in balloon ascents. Thus on the 1st of July 1901, at a height of 2400 metres, H. Gerdien (29) obtained 0·86 for I+ and 1·09 for I−.
20. In 1901 Elster and Geitel found that a radioactive emanation is present in the atmosphere. Their method of measuring the radioactivity is as follows (48): A wire not exceeding 1 mm. in diameter, charged to a negative potential of at least 2000 volts, is supported between insulators in the open, usually at a height of about 2 metres. After two hours’ exposure, it is wrapped round a frame supported in a given position relative to Elster and Geitel’s dissipation apparatus, and the loss of charge is noted. This loss is proportional to the length of the wire. The radioactivity is denoted by A, and A＝1 signifies that the potential of the dissipation apparatus fell 1 volt in an hour per metre of wire introduced. The loss of the dissipation body due to the natural ionization of the air is first allowed for. Suppose, for instance, that in the absence of the wire the potential falls from 264 to 255 volts in 15 minutes, whilst when the wire (10 metres long) is introduced it falls from 264 to 201 volts in 10 minutes, then
10A＝(264 − 201) × 6 − (264 − 255) × 4＝342; or A＝34·2.
