liquid petroleum escaping from underlying or better preserved deposits into other strata, or into fissures where atmospheric action and loss of the more volatile constituents can take place. It should, however, be stated that there is some difference of opinion as to the precise manner of production of some of the solid forms of bitumen, and especially of ozokerite. (B. R.)
BITURIGES, a Celtic people, according to Livy (v. 34) the
most powerful in Gaul in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. At
some period unknown they split up into two branches—Bituriges
Cubi and Bituriges Vivisci. The name is supposed to mean
either “rulers of the world” or “perpetual kings.”
The Bituriges Cubi, called simply Bituriges by Caesar, in whose time they acknowledged the supremacy of the Aedui, inhabited the modern diocese of Bourges, including the departments of Cher and Indre, and partly that of Allier. Their chief towns were Avaricum (Bourges), Argentomagus (Argenton-sur-Creuse), Neriomagus (Néris-les-Bains), Noviodunum (perhaps Villate). At the time of the rebellion of Vercingetorix (52 B.C.), Avaricum, after a desperate resistance, was taken by assault, and the inhabitants put to the sword. In the following year, the Bituriges submitted to Caesar, and under Augustus they were incorporated (in 28 B.C.) in Aquitania. Pliny (Nat. Hist. iv. 109) speaks of them as liberi, which points to their enjoying a certain amount of independence under Roman government. The district contained a number of iron works, and Caesar says they were skilled in driving galleries and mining operations.
The Bituriges Vivisci occupied the strip of land between the sea and the left bank of the Garonne, comprising the greater part of the modern department of Gironde. Their capital was Burdigala (Bordeaux), even then a place of considerable importance and a wine-growing centre. Like the Cubi, they also are called liberi by Pliny.
See A. Desjardins, Géographie historique de la Gaule romaine, ii. (1876–1893); A. Longnon, Géographie de la Gaule on VIᵉ siècle (1878); A. Hohler, Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz; T. R. Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1899).
BITZIUS, ALBRECHT (1797–1854), Swiss novelist, best known
by his pet name of “Jeremias Gotthelf,” was born on the 4th
of October 1797 at Morat, where his father was pastor. In 1804
the home was moved to Utzenstorf, a village in the Bernese
Emmenthal. Here young Bitzius grew up, receiving his early
education and consorting with the boys of the village, as well as
helping his father to cultivate his glebe. In 1812 he went to
complete his education at Bern, and in 1820 was received as a
pastor. In 1821 he visited the university of Göttingen, but
returned home in 1822 to act as his father’s assistant. On his
father’s death (1824) he went in the same capacity to Herzogenbuchsee,
and later to Bern (1829). Early in 1831 he went as
assistant to the aged pastor of the village of Lützelflüh, in the
Upper Emmenthal (between Langnau and Burgdorf), being soon
elected his successor (1832) and marrying one of his granddaughters
(1833). He spent the rest of his life there, dying on
the 22nd of October 1854, and leaving three children (the son was
a pastor, the two daughters married pastors). His first work,
the Bauernspiegel, appeared in 1837. It purported to be the life
of Jeremias Gotthelf, narrated by himself, and this name was
later adopted by the author as his pen name. It is a living
picture of Bernese (or, strictly speaking, Emmenthal) village
life, true to nature, and not attempting to gloss over its defects
and failings. It is written (like the rest of his works) in the
Bernese dialect of the Emmenthal, though it must be remembered
that Bitzius was not (like Auerbach) a peasant by birth, but
belonged to the educated classes, so that he reproduces what he
had seen and learnt, and not what he had himself personally
experienced. The book was a great success, as it was a picture
of real life, and not of fancifully beribboned 18th-century
villagers. Among his later tales are the Leiden und Freuden
eines Schulmeisters (1838–1839), Uli der Knecht (1841), with its
continuation, Uli der Pachter (1849), Anne Babi Jowager (1843–1844),
Käthi die Grossmutter (1847), Die Käserei in der Vehfreude
(1850), and the Erlebnisse eines Schuldenbauers (1854). He
published also several volumes of shorter tales. One slight
drawback to some of his writings is the echo of local political
controversies, for Bitzius was a Whig and strongly opposed to
the Radical party in the canton, which carried the day in 1846.
Lives by C. Manuel, in the Berlin edition of Bitzius’s works (Berlin, 1861), and by J. Ammann in vol. i. (Bern, 1884) of the Sammlung Bernischer Biographien. His works were issued in 24 vols. at Berlin, 1856–1861, while 10 vols., giving the original text of each story, were issued at Bern, 1898–1900 (edition not to be completed). (W. A. B. C.)
BIVOUAC (a French word generally said to have been introduced
during the Thirty Years’ War, perhaps derived from
Beiwacht, extra guard), originally, a night-watch by a whole
army under arms to prevent surprise. In modern military parlance
the word is used to mean a temporary encampment in
the open field without tents, as opposed to “billets” or “cantonment”
on the one hand and “camp” on the other. The use
of bivouacs permits an army to remain closely concentrated
for all emergencies, and avoids the necessity for numerous
wagons carrying tents. Constant bivouacs, however, are trying
to the health of men and horses, and this method of quartering
is never employed except when the military situation demands
concentration and readiness. Thus the outposts would often
have to bivouac while the main body of the army lay in billets.
BIWA, a lake in the province of Omi, Japan. It measures
36 m. in length by 12 m. in extreme breadth, has an area of 180
sq. m., is about 330 ft. above sea-level, and has an extreme
depth of some 300 ft. There are a few small islands in the lake,
the principal being Chikubu-shima at the northern end.
Tradition alleges that Lake Biwa and the mountain of Fuji were produced simultaneously by an earthquake in 286 B.C. On the west of the lake the mountains Hiei-zan and Hira-yama slope down almost to its margin, and on the east a wide plain extends towards the boundaries of the province of Mino. It is drained by a river flowing out of its southern end, and taking its course into the sea at Osaka. This river bears in succession the names of Seta-gawa, Uji-gawa and Yodo-gawa. The lake abounds with fish, and the beauty of its scenery is remarkable. Small steamboats ply constantly to the points of chief interest, and around its shores are to be viewed the Omi-no-hakkei, or “eight landscapes of Omi”; namely, the lake silvering under an autumn moon as one looks down from Ishi-yama; the snow at eve on Hira-yama; the glow of sunset at Seta; the groves and classic temple of Mii-dera as the evening bell sounds; boats sailing home from Yabase; cloudless peaks at Awazu; rain at nightfall over Karasaki; and wild geese sweeping down to Katata. The lake is connected with Kyoto by a canal constructed in 1890, and is thus brought into water communication with Osaka.
BIXIO, NINO (1821–1873), Italian soldier, was born on the
2nd of October 1821. While still a boy he was compelled by
his parents to embrace a maritime career. After numerous
adventures he returned to Italy in 1846, joined the Giovine Italia,
and, on 4th November 1847, made himself conspicuous at Genoa
by seizing the bridle of Charles Albert’s horse and crying, “Pass
the Ticino, Sire, and we are all with you.” He fought through
the campaign of 1848, became captain under Garibaldi at Rome
in 1849, taking prisoners an entire French battalion, and gaining
the gold medal for military valour. In 1859 he commanded a
Garibaldian battalion, and gained the military cross of Savoy.
Joining the Marsala expedition in 1860, he turned the day in
favour of Garibaldi at Calatafimi, was wounded at Palermo, but
recovered in time to besiege Reggio in Calabria (21st of August
1860), and, though again wounded, took part in the battle of
Volturno, where his leg was broken. Elected deputy in 1861,
he endeavoured to reconcile Cavour and Garibaldi. In 1866, at
the head of the seventh division, he covered the Italian retreat
from Custozza, ignoring the Austrian summons to surrender.
Created senator in February 1870, he was in the following
September given command of a division during the movement
against Rome, took Cività Vecchia, and participated in the
general attack upon Rome (20th September 1870). He died of
cholera at Achin Bay in Sumatra en route for Batavia, whither he
