surrounding the cathode. The end of the tube in front of the
cathode is closed by a strong metal cap, fastened in with marine
glue, in the middle of which a hole 1.7 mm. in diameter is bored,
and covered with a piece of very thin aluminium foil about
.0026 mm. in thickness. The aluminium window is in metallic
contact with the cap, and this and the anode are connected with
the earth. The tube is then exhausted until the cathode rays
strike against the window. Diffuse light spreads from the
window into the air outside the tube, and can be traced in a dark
room for a distance of several centimetres. From the window,
too, proceed rays which, like the cathode rays, can produce
phosphorescence, for certain bodies phosphoresce when placed
in the neighbourhood of the window. This effect is conveniently
observed by the platino-cryanide screens used to detect Röntgen
radiation. The properties of the rays outside the tube resemble
in all respects those of cathode rays;
Fig. 25.
they are deflected by a magnet and
by an electric field, they ionize the
gas through which they pass and make
it a conductor of electricity, and they
affect a photographic plate and change
the colour of the haloid salts of
the alkali metals. As, however, it is convenient to distinguish
between cathode rays outside and inside the tube, we shall call
the former Lenard rays. In air at atmospheric pressure the
Lenard rays spread out very diffusely. If the aluminium
window, instead of opening into the air, opens into another tube
which can be exhausted, it is found that the lower the pressure of
the gas in this tube the farther the rays travel and the less diffuse
they are. By filling the tube with different gases Lenard showed
that the greater the density of the gas the greater is the absorption
of these rays. Thus they travel farther in hydrogen than in
any other gas at the same pressure. Lenard showed, too, that if
he adjusted the pressure so that the density of the gas in this tube
was the same—if, for example, the pressure when the tube was
filled with oxygen was 116 of the pressure when it was filled with
hydrogen—the absorption was constant whatever the nature of
the gas. Becker (Ann. der Phys. 17, p. 381) has shown that this
law is only approximately true, the absorption by hydrogen
being abnormally large, and by the inert monatomic gases, such
as helium and argon, abnormally small. The distance to which
the Lenard rays penetrate into this tube depends upon the
pressure in the discharge tube; if the exhaustion in the latter is
very high, so that there is a large potential difference between
the cathode and the anode, and therefore a high velocity for the
cathode rays, the Lenard rays will penetrate farther than when
the pressure in the discharge tube is higher and the velocity of the
cathode rays smaller. Lenard showed that the greater the
penetrating power of his rays the smaller was their magnetic
deflection, and therefore the greater their velocity; thus the
greater the velocity of the cathode rays the greater is the velocity
of the Lenard rays to which they give rise. For very slow
cathode rays the absorption by different gases departs altogether
from the density law, so much so that the absorption of these rays
by hydrogen is greater than that by air (Lenard, Ann. der Phys.
12, p. 732). Lenard (Wied. Ann. 56, p. 255) studied the passage of
his rays through solids as well as through gases, and arrived at
the very interesting result that the absorption of a substance
depends only upon its density, and not upon its chemical composition
or physical state; in other words, the amount of
absorption of the rays when they traverse a given distance
depends only on the quantity of matter they cut through in the
distance. McClelland (Proc. Roy. Soc. 61, p. 227) showed that
the rays carry a charge of negative electricity, and M‘Lennan
measured the amount of ionization rays of given intensity
produced in different gases, finding that if the pressure is adjusted
so that the density of the different gases is the same the number
of ions per cubic centimetre is also the same. In this case, as
Lenard has shown, the absorption is the same, so that with the
Lenard rays, as with uranium and probably with Röntgen
rays, equal absorption corresponds to equal ionization. A
convenient method for producing Lenard rays of great
intensity has been described by Des Coudres (Wied. Ann.
62, p. 134).
Diffuse Reflection of Cathode Rays.—When cathode rays fall upon a surface, whether of an insulator or a conductor, cathode rays start from the surface in all directions. This phenomenon, which was discovered by Goldstein (Wied. Ann. 62, p. 134), has been investigated by Starke (Wied. Ann. 66, p. 49; Ann. der Phys. 111, p. 75), Austin and Starke (Ann. der Phys. 9, p. 271), Campbell-Swinton (Proc. Roy. Soc. 64, p. 377), Merritt (Phys. Rev. 7, p. 217) and Gehrcke (Ann. der Phys. 8, p. 81); it is often regarded as analogous to the diffuse reflection of light from such a surface as gypsum, and is spoken of as the diffuse reflection of the cathode rays. According to Merritt and Austin and Starke the deviation in a magnetic field of these reflected rays is the same as that of the incident rays. The experiments, however, were confined to rays reflected so that the angle of reflection was nearly equal to that of incidence. Gehrcke showed that among the reflected rays there were a large number which had a much smaller velocity than the incident ones. According to Campbell-Swinton the “diffuse” reflection is accompanied by a certain amount of “specular” reflection. Lenard, who used slower cathode rays than Austin and Starke, could not detect in the scattered rays any with velocities comparable with that of the incident rays; he obtained copious supplies of slow rays whose speed did not depend on the angle of incidence of the primary rays (Ann. der Phys. 15, p. 485). When the angle of incidence is very oblique the surface struck by the rays gets positively charged, showing that the secondary rays are more numerous than the primary.
Repulsion of two Cathode Streams.—Goldstein discovered that if in a tube there are two cathodes connected together, the cathodic rays from one cathode are deflected when they pass near the other. Experiments bearing on this subject have been made by Crookes and Wiedemann and Ebert. The phenomena may be described by saying that the repulsion of the rays from a cathode A by a cathode B is only appreciable when the rays from A pass through the Crookes dark space round B. This is what we should expect if we remember that the electric field in the dark space is far stronger than in the rest of the discharge, and that the gas in the other parts of the tube is rendered a conductor by the passage through it of the cathode rays, and therefore incapable of transmitting electrostatic repulsion.
Scattering of the Negative Electrodes.—In addition to the cathode rays, portions of metal start normally from the cathode and form a metallic deposit on the walls of the tube. The amount of this deposit varies very much with the metal. Crookes (Proc. Roy. Soc. 50, p. 88) found that the quantities of metal torn from electrodes of the same size, in equal times, by the same current, are in the order Pd, Au, Ag, Pb, Sn, Pt, Cu, Cd, Ni, In, Fe.... In air there is very little deposit from an Al cathode, but it is abundant in tubes filled with the monatomic gases, mercury vapour, argon or helium. The scattering increases as the density of the gas diminishes. The particles of metal are at low pressures deflected by a magnet, though not nearly to the same extent as the cathode rays. According to Grandquist, the loss of weight of the cathode in a given time is proportional to the square of the current; it is therefore not, like the loss of the cathode in ordinary electrolysis, proportional to the quantity of current which passes through it.
 |
| Fig. 26. |
Positive Rays or “Canalstrahlen.”—Goldstein (Berl. Sitzungsb. 39, p. 691) found that with a perforated cathode certain rays occurred behind the cathode which were not appreciably deflected by a magnet; these he called Canal-strahlen, but we shall, for reasons which will appear later, call them “positive rays.”
Their appearance is well shown in fig. 26, taken from a paper by Wehnelt (Wied. Ann. 67, p. 421) in which they are represented at B. Goldstein found
