CORACLE (Welsh corwg-l, from corwg, cf. Irish and mod. Gaelic curach, boat), a species of ancient British fishing-boat which is still extensively used on the Severn and other rivers of Wales, notably on the Towy and Teifi. It is a light boat, oval in shape, and formed of canvas stretched on a framework of split and interwoven rods, and well-coated with tar and pitch to render it water-tight. According to early writers the framework was covered with horse or bullock hide (corium). So light and portable are these boats that they can easily be carried on the fisherman’s shoulders when proceeding to and from his work. Coracle-fishing is performed by two men, each seated in his coracle and with one hand holding the net while with the other he plies his paddle. When a fish is caught, each hauls up his end of the net until the two coracles are brought to touch and the fish is then secured. The coracle forms a unique link between the modern life of Wales and its remote past; for this primitive type of boat was in existence amongst the Britons at the time of the invasion of Julius Caesar, who has left a description of it, and even employed it in his Spanish campaign.
CORAËS (Koraïs), ADAMANTIOS [in French, Diamant Coray] (1748–1833), Greek scholar and patriot, was born at
Smyrna, the son of a merchant. As a schoolboy he distinguished
himself in the study of ancient Greek, but from 1772 to 1779
he was occupied with the management of his father’s business
affairs in Amsterdam. In 1782, on the collapse of his father’s
business, he went to Montpellier, where for six years he studied
medicine, supporting himself by translating German and English
medical works into French. He then settled in Paris, where
he lived until his death on the 10th of April 1833. Inspired
by the ideals of the French Revolution, he devoted himself to
furthering the cause of Greek independence both among the
Greeks themselves and by awakening the interest of the chief
European Powers against the Turkish rule. His great object
was to rouse the enthusiasm of the Greeks for the idea that they
were the true descendants of the ancient Hellenes by teaching
them to regard as their own inheritance the great works of
antiquity. He sought to purify the ordinary written language
by eliminating the more obvious barbarisms, and by enriching
it with classical words and others invented in strict accordance
with classical tradition (see further Greek Language: modern).
Under his influence, though the common patois was practically
untouched, the language of literature and intellectual intercourse
was made to approximate to the pure Attic of the 5th
and 4th centuries B.C. His chief works are his editions of Greek
authors contained in his Ἑλληνικὴ Βιβλιοθήκη and his Πάρεργα;
his editions of the Characters of Theophrastus, of the De aëre,
aquis, et locis of Hippocrates, and of the Aethiopica of Heliodorus,
elaborately annotated.
His literary remains have been edited by Mamoukas and Damalas (1881–1887); collections of letters written from Paris at the time of the French Revolution have been published (in English, by P. Ralli, 1898; in French, by the Marquis de Queux de Saint-Hilaire, 1880). His autobiography appeared at Paris (1829; Athens, 1891), and his life has been written by D. Thereianos (1889–1890); see also A. R. Rhangabé, Histoire littéraire de la Grèce moderne (1877).
CORAL, the hard skeletons of various marine organisms. It
is chiefly carbonate of lime, and is secreted from sea-water
and deposited in the tissues of Anthozoan polyps, the principal
source of the coral-reefs of the world (see Anthozoa), of Hydroids
(see Hydromedusae), less important in modern reef-building,
but extremely abundant in Palaeozoic times, and of certain
Algae. The skeletons of many other organisms, such as Polyzoa
and Mollusca, contribute to coral masses but cannot be included
in the term “coral.” The structure of coral animals (sometimes
erroneously termed “coral insects”) is dealt within the articles
cited above; for the distribution and formation of reefs see
Coral-reefs.
Beyond their general utility and value as sources of lime, few of the corals present any special feature of industrial importance, excepting the red or precious coral (Corallium rubrum) of the Mediterranean Sea. It, however, is and has been from remote times very highly prized for jewelry, personal ornamentation and decorative purposes generally. About the beginning of the Christian era a great trade was carried on in coral between the Mediterranean and India, where it was highly esteemed as a substance endowed with mysterious sacred properties. It is remarked by Pliny that, previous to the existence of the Indian demand, the Gauls were in the habit of using it for the ornamentation of their weapons of war and helmets; but in his day, so great was the Eastern demand, that it was very rarely seen even in the regions which produced it. Among the Romans branches of coral were hung around children’s necks to preserve them from danger, and the substance had many medicinal virtues attributed to it. A belief in its potency as a charm continued to be entertained throughout medieval times; and even to the present day in Italy it is worn as a preservative from the evil eye, and by females as a cure for sterility.
The precious coral is found widespread on the borders and around the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. It ranges in depth from shallow water (25 to 50 ft.) to water over 1000 ft., but the most abundant beds are in the shallower areas. The most important fisheries extend along the coasts of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco; but red coral is also obtained in the vicinity of Naples, near Leghorn and Genoa, and on the coasts of Sardinia, Corsica, Catalonia and Provence. It occurs also in the Atlantic off the north-west of Africa, and recently it has been dredged in deep water off the west of Ireland. Allied species of small commercial value have been obtained off Mauritius and near Japan. The black coral (Antipathes abies), formerly abundant in the Persian Gulf, and for which India is the chief market, has a wide distribution and grows to a considerable height and thickness in the tropical waters of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia.
From the middle ages downwards the securing of the right to the coral fisheries on the African coasts was an object of considerable rivalry among the Mediterranean communities of Europe. Previous to the 16th century they were controlled by the Italian republics. For a short period the Tunisian fisheries were secured by Charles V. to Spain; but the monopoly soon fell into the hands of the French, who held the right till the Revolutionary government in 1793 threw the trade open. For a short period (about 1806) the British government controlled the fisheries, and now they are again in the hands of the French authorities. Previous to the French Revolution much of the coral trade centred in Marseilles; but since that period, both the procuring of the raw material and the working of it up into the various forms in which it is used have become peculiarly Italian industries, centring largely in Naples, Rome and Genoa. On the Algerian coast, however, boats not flying the French flag have to pay heavy dues for the right to fish, and in the early years of the 20th century the once flourishing fisheries at La Calle were almost entirely neglected. Two classes of boats engage in the pursuit—a large size of from 12 to 14 tons, manned by ten or twelve hands, and a small size of 3 or 4 tons, with a crew of five or six. The large boats, dredging from March to October, collect from 650 to 850 ℔ of coral, and the small, working throughout the year, collect from 390 to 500 ℔. The Algerian reefs are divided into ten portions, of which only one is fished annually—ten years being considered sufficient for the proper growth of the coral.
The range of value of the various qualities of coral, according to colour and size, is exceedingly wide, and notwithstanding the steady Oriental demand its price is considerably affected by the fluctuations of fashion. While the price of the finest tints of rose pink may range from £80 to £120 per oz., ordinary red-coloured small pieces sell for about £2 per oz., and the small fragments called collette, used for children’s necklaces, cost about 5s. per oz. In China large spheres of good coloured coral command high prices, being in great requisition for the button of office worn by the mandarins. It also finds a ready market throughout India and in Central Asia; and with the negroes of Central Africa and of America it is a favourite ornamental substance.
CORALLIAN (Fr. Corallien), in geology, the name of one of the divisions of the Jurassic rocks. The rocks forming this division
