generic name Balistes and the Italian name of “Pesce balistra” refer to this structure. Both jaws are armed with eight strong incisor-like and sometimes pointed teeth, by which these fishes are enabled, not only to break off pieces of madrepores and other corals on which they feed, but also to chisel a hole into the hard shells of Mollusca, in order to extract the soft parts. In this way they destroy an immense number of molluscs, and become most injurious to the pearl-fisheries. The gradual failure of those fisheries in Ceylon has been ascribed to this cause, although evidently other agencies must have been at work at the same time. The Monacanthi are distinguished from the Balistes in having only one dorsal spine and a velvety covering of the skin. Some 30 different species are known of Balistes and about 50 of Monacanthus. Two species (B. maculatus and capriscus), common in the Atlantic, sometimes wander to the British coasts.
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| Balistes vidua. |
FILELFO, FRANCESCO (1398–1481), Italian humanist, was
born in 1398 at Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. When he
appeared upon the scene of human life, Petrarch and the students
of Florence had already brought the first act in the recovery of
classic culture to conclusion. They had created an eager appetite
for the antique, had disinterred many important Roman
authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent from
the barbarism of the middle ages. Filelfo was destined to carry
on their work in the field of Latin literature, and to be an important
agent in the still unaccomplished recovery of Greek
culture. His earliest studies in grammar, rhetoric and the Latin
language were conducted at Padua, where he acquired so great
a reputation for learning that in 1417 he was invited to teach
eloquence and moral philosophy at Venice. According to the
custom of that age in Italy, it now became his duty to explain the
language, and to illustrate the beauties of the principal Latin
authors, Cicero and Virgil being considered the chief masters of
moral science and of elegant diction. Filelfo made his mark
at once in Venice. He was admitted to the society of the first
scholars and the most eminent nobles of that city; and in 1419
he received an appointment from the state, which enabled him
to reside as secretary to the consul-general (baylo) of the Venetians
in Constantinople. This appointment was not only honourable
to Filelfo as a man of trust and general ability, but it also gave
him the opportunity of acquiring the most coveted of all possessions
at that moment for a scholar—a knowledge of the Greek
language. Immediately after his arrival in Constantinople,
Filelfo placed himself under the tuition of John Chrysoloras,
whose name was already well known in Italy as relative of Manuel,
the first Greek to profess the literature of his ancestors in Florence.
At the recommendation of Chrysoloras he was employed in several
diplomatic missions by the emperor John Palaeologus. Before
very long the friendship between Filelfo and his tutor was
cemented by the marriage of the former to Theodora, the
daughter of John Chrysoloras. He had now acquired a thorough
knowledge of the Greek language, and had formed a large
collection of Greek manuscripts. There was no reason why he
should not return to his native country. Accordingly, in 1427 he
accepted an invitation from the republic of Venice, and set sail for
Italy, intending to resume his professorial career. From this
time forward until the date of his death, Filelfo’s history consists
of a record of the various towns in which he lectured, the masters
whom he served, the books he wrote, the authors he illustrated,
the friendships he contracted, and the wars he waged with rival
scholars. He was a man of vast physical energy, of inexhaustible
mental activity, of quick passions and violent appetites; vain,
restless, greedy of gold and pleasure and fame; unable to stay
quiet in one place, and perpetually engaged in quarrels with his
compeers.
When Filelfo arrived at Venice with his family in 1427, he found that the city had almost been emptied by the plague, and that his scholars would be few. He therefore removed to Bologna; but here also he was met with drawbacks. The city was too much disturbed with political dissensions to attend to him; so Filelfo crossed the Apennines and settled in Florence. At Florence began one of the most brilliant and eventful periods of his life. During the week he lectured to large audiences of young and old on the principal Greek and Latin authors, and on Sundays he explained Dante to the people in the Duomo. In addition to these labours of the chair, he found time to translate portions of Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias from the Greek. Nor was he dead to the claims of society. At first he seems to have lived with the Florentine scholars on tolerably good terms; but his temper was so arrogant that Cosimo de’ Medici’s friends were not long able to put up with him. Filelfo hereupon broke out into open and violent animosity; and when Cosimo was exiled by the Albizzi party in 1433, he urged the signoria of Florence to pronounce upon him the sentence of death. On the return of Cosimo to Florence, Filelfo’s position in that city was no longer tenable. His life, he asserted, had been already once attempted by a cut-throat in the pay of the Medici; and now he readily accepted an invitation from the state of Siena. In Siena, however, he was not destined to remain more than four years. His fame as a professor had grown great in Italy, and he daily received tempting offers from princes and republics. The most alluring of these, made him by the duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, he decided on accepting; and in 1440 he was received with honour by his new master in the capital of Lombardy.
Filelfo’s life at Milan curiously illustrates the multifarious importance of the scholars of that age in Italy. It was his duty to celebrate his princely patrons in panegyrics and epics, to abuse their enemies in libels and invectives, to salute them with encomiastic odes on their birthdays, and to compose poems on their favourite themes. For their courtiers he wrote epithalamial and funeral orations; ambassadors and visitors from foreign states he greeted with the rhetorical lucubrations then so much in vogue. The students of the university he taught in daily lectures, passing in review the weightiest and lightest authors of antiquity, and pouring forth a flood of miscellaneous erudition. Not satisfied with these outlets for his mental energy, Filelfo went on translating from the Greek, and prosecuted a paper warfare with his enemies in Florence. He wrote, moreover, political pamphlets on the great events of Italian history; and when Constantinople was taken by the Turks, he procured the liberation of his wife’s mother by a message addressed in his own name to the sultan. In addition to a fixed stipend of some 700 golden florins yearly, he was continually in receipt of special payments for the orations and poems he produced; so that, had he been a man of frugal habits or of moderate economy, he might have amassed a considerable fortune. As it was, he spent his money as fast as he received it, living in a style of splendour ill befitting a simple scholar, and indulging his taste for pleasure in more than questionable amusements. In consequence of this prodigality, he was always poor. His letters and his poems abound in impudent demands for money from patrons, some of them couched in language of the lowest adulation, and others savouring of literary brigandage.
During the second year of his Milanese residence Filelfo lost his first wife, Theodora. He soon married again; and this time he chose for his bride a young lady of good Lombard family, called Orsina Osnaga. When she died he took in wedlock for
