all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of failure. During the revolution band after band of political prisoners were transported to Guiana. The fate of the royalists, nearly 600 in number, who were exiled on the 18th Fructidor (1797), was especially sad. Landed on the Sinnamary without shelter or food, two-thirds of them perished miserably. In 1800 Victor Hugues was appointed governor, and he managed to put the colony in a better state; but in 1809 his work was brought to a close by the invasion of the Portuguese and British.
Though French Guiana was nominally restored to the French in 1814, it was not really surrendered by the Portuguese till 1817. Numerous efforts were now made to establish the colony firmly, although its past misfortunes had prejudiced the public mind in France against it. In 1822 the first steam sugar mills were introduced; in 1824 an agricultural colony (Nouvelle Angoulême) was attempted in the Mana district, which, after failure at first, became comparatively successful. The emancipation of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost ruined the development of agricultural resources about the middle of the century, but in 1853 a large body of African immigrants was introduced. The discovery of gold on the Approuague in 1855 caused feverish excitement, and seriously disturbed the economic condition of the country.
Authorities.—A detailed bibliography of French Guiana will be found in Ternaux-Compans, Notice historique de la Guyane française (Paris, 1843). Among more recent works, see E. Bassières, Notice sur la Guyane, issued on the occasion of the Paris Exhibition (1900); Publications de la société d’études pour la colonisation de la Guyane française (Paris, 1843–1844); H. A. Coudreau, La France équinoxiale (1887), Dialectes indiens de Guyane (1891), Dix ans de Guyane (1892), and Chez nos Indiens (1893), all at Paris; G. Brousseau, Les Richesses de la Guyane française (Paris, 1901); L. F. Viala, Les Trois Guyanes (Montpellier, 1893).
GUIART (or Guiard), GUILLAUME (d. c. 1316), French
chronicler and poet, was probably born at Orleans, and served
in the French army in Flanders in 1304. Having been disabled
by a wound he began to write, lived at Arras and then in Paris,
thus being able to consult the large store of manuscripts in the
abbey of St Denis, including the Grandes chroniques de France.
Afterwards he appears as a ménestrel de bouche. Guiart’s poem
Branche des royaulx lignages, was written and then rewritten
between 1304 and 1307, in honour of the French king Philip IV.,
and in answer to the aspersions of a Flemish poet. Comprising
over 21,000 verses it deals with the history of the French kings
from the time of Louis VIII.; but it is only really important
for the period after 1296 and for the war in Flanders from 1301
to 1304, of which it gives a graphic account, and for which it is
a high authority. It was first published by J. A. Buchon
(Paris, 1828), and again in tome xxii. of the Recueil des historiens
des Gaules et de la France (Paris, 1865).
See A. Molinier, Les Sources de l’histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris, 1903).
GUIBERT, or Wibert (c. 1030–1100), of Ravenna, antipope
under the title of Clement III. from the 25th of June 1080 until
September 1100, was born at Parma between 1020 and 1030 of
the noble imperialist family, Corregio. He entered the priesthood
and was appointed by the empress Agnes, chancellor and,
after the death of Pope Victor II. (1057), imperial vicar in Italy.
He strove to uphold the imperial authority during Henry IV.’s
minority, and presided over the synod at Basel (1061) which
annulled the election of Alexander II. and created in the person
of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, the antipope Honorius II.
Guibert lost the chancellorship in 1062. In 1073, through the
influence of Empress Agnes and the support of Cardinal Hildebrand,
he obtained the archbishopric of Ravenna and swore
fealty to Alexander II. and his successors. He seems to have
been at first on friendly terms with Gregory VII., but soon
quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of Imola,
and henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction
in the investiture contest. He allied himself with Cencius,
Cardinal Candidus and other opponents of Gregory at Rome,
and, on his refusal to furnish troops or to attend the Lenten
synod of 1075, he was ecclesiastically suspended by the pope.
He was probably excommunicated at the synod of Worms
(1076) with other Lombard bishops who sided with Henry IV.,
and at the Lenten synod of 1078 he was banned by name. The
emperor, having been excommunicated for the second time in
March 1080, convened nineteen bishops of his party at Mainz
on the 31st of May, who pronounced the deposition of Gregory;
and on the 25th of June he caused Guibert to be elected pope
by thirty bishops assembled at Brixen. Guibert, whilst retaining
possession of his archbishopric, accompanied his imperial
master on most of the latter’s military expeditions. Having
gained Rome, he was installed in the Lateran and consecrated
as Clement III. on the 24th of March 1084. One week later,
on Easter Sunday, he crowned Henry IV. and Bertha in St
Peter’s. Clement survived not only Gregory VII. but also
Victor III. and Urban II., maintaining his title to the end and
in great measure his power over Rome and the adjoining regions.
Excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals.
He was driven out of Rome finally by crusaders in 1097, and
sought refuge in various fortresses on his own estates. St
Angelo, the last Guibertist stronghold in Rome, fell to Urban II.
on the 24th of August 1098. Clement, on the accession of
Paschal II. in 1099, prepared to renew his struggle but was
driven from Albano by Norman troops and died at Civita
Castellana in September 1100. His ashes, which were said by
his followers to have worked miracles, were thrown into the
water by Paschal II.
See J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); Jaffé-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman. (2nd ed., 1885–1888); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. v. (2nd ed.); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. iv., trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900–1902); and O. Köhncke, Wibert von Ravenna (Leipzig, 1888). (C. H. Ha.)
GUIBERT (1053–1124), of Nogent, historian and theologian,
was born of noble parents at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, and
dedicated from infancy to the church. He received his early
education at the Benedictine abbey of Flavigny (Flaviacum)
or St Germer, where he studied with great zeal, devoting himself
at first to the secular poets, an experience which left its imprint
on his works; later changing to theology, through the influence
of Anselm of Bec, afterwards of Canterbury. In 1104, he was
chosen to be head of the abbey of Notre Dame de Nogent and
henceforth took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs. His
autobiography (De vita sua, sive monodiarum), written towards
the close of his life, gives many picturesque glimpses of his time
and the customs of his country. The description of the commune
of Laon is an historical document of the first order. The
same local colour lends charm to his history of the first crusade
(Gesta Dei per Francos) written about 1110. But the history
is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the Gesta Francorum
of an anonymous Norman author (see Crusades); and when
he comes to the end of his authority, he allows his book to
degenerate into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes.
At the same time his high birth and his position in the church
give his work an occasional value.
Bibliography.—Guibert’s works, edited by d’Achery, were first published in 1651, in 1 vol. folio, at Paris (Venerabilis Guiberti abbatis B. Mariae de Novigento opera omnia), and republished in Migne’s Patrologia Latina, vols. clvi. and clxxxiv. They include, besides minor works, a treatise on homiletics (“Liber quo ordine sermo fieri debeat”); ten books of Moralia on Genesis, begun in 1084, but not completed until 1116, composed on the model of Gregory the Great’s Moralia in Jobum; five books of Tropologiae on Hosea, Amos and the Lamentations; a treatise on the Incarnation, against the Jews; four books De pignoribus sanctorum, a remarkably free criticism on the abuses of saint and relic worship; three books of autobiography, De vita sua, sive monodiarum; and eight books of the Historia quae dicitur Gesta Dei per Francos, sive historia Hierosolymitana (the ninth book is by another author). Separate editions exist of the last named, in J. Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos, i., and Recueil des historiens des croisades, hist. Occid., iv. 115–263. It has been translated into French in Guizot’s Collection, ix. 1-338. See H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881); B. Monod, Le Moine Guibert et son temps (Paris, 1905); and Guibert de Nogent; histoire de sa vie, edited by G. Bourgin (Paris, 1907).
GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE, Comte de
(1743–1790), French general and military writer, was born at
Montauban, and at the age of thirteen accompanied his father,
Charles Bénoit, comte de Guibert (1715–1786), chief of staff to
