upon these metals. In districts supplied with soft water, copper should be employed to as large an extent as possible.
The table given below will be useful in calculating the size of the radiating surface necessary to raise the temperature to the extent required when the external air is at freezing point (32° Fahr.):—
| Description of Building to be heated. | Temperature required. |
Cubic Feet of Air heated by 1 sq. ft. of Radiator or Pipe Surface. | |
| Low Pressure Water. | Low Pressure Steam. | ||
| Dwelling rooms | 55°–60° | 85–90 | 115–125 |
| Schools | 60° | 90–100 | 120–130 |
| Churches and chapels | 55°–60° | 100–120 | 135–160 |
| Offices and shops | 55°–60° | 120–125 | 160–170 |
| Public halls, workshops, waiting-rooms | 55° | 130–150 | 175–200 |
| Warehouses, stores | 50°–55° | 140–160 | 190–220 |
In closing this account of heating and the practical methods of application of heat, an example may be mentioned to show the great capabilities of a carefully planned system. At the city of Lockport in New York state, America, Steam supply at Lockport. an interesting example of the direct application of steam-heating on a large scale has been carried out under the direction of Mr Birdsill Holly of that city. Houses within a radius of 3 m. from the boiler house are supplied with superheated steam at a pressure of 35 ℔ to the in. The mains, the largest of which are 4 in. in diameter, and the smallest 2 in., are wrapped in asbestos, felt and other non-conducting materials, and are placed in wooden tubes laid under ground like water and gas pipes. The house branches pipes are 112 in. in diameter, and 34-in. pipes are used inside the houses. The steam is employed for warming apartments by means of pipe radiators, for heating water by steam injections, and for all cooking purposes. The steam mains to the houses are laid by the supply company; the internal pipes and fittings are paid for or rented by the occupier, costing for an installation from £30 for an ordinary eight-roomed house to £100 or more for larger buildings. With the success of this undertaking in view it is a matter of wonder that the example set in this instance has not been adopted to a much greater extent elsewhere.
The principal publications on heating are: Hood, Practical Treatise on Warming Buildings by Hot Water; Baldwin, Hot Water Heating and Fittings; Baldwin, Steam Heating for Buildings; Billings, Ventilation and Heating; Carpenter, Heating and Ventilating Buildings; Jones, Heating by Hot Water, Ventilation and Hot Water Supply; Dye, Hot Water Supply. (J. Bt.)
HEAVEN (O. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears
in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel,
Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between
the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is
unknown; the suggestion that it is connected with “to heave,”
in the sense of something “lifted up,” is erroneous), properly
the expanse, taking the appearance of a domed vault above the
earth, in which the sun, moon, planets and stars seem to be placed,
the firmament; hence also used, generally in the plural, of the
space immediately above the earth, the atmospheric region
of winds, rain, clouds, and of the birds of the air. The heaven
and the earth together, therefore, to the ancient cosmographers,
and still in poetical language, make up the universe. In the
cosmogonies of many ancient peoples there was a plurality of
heavens, probably among the earlier Hebrews, the idea being
elaborated in rabbinical literature, among the Babylonians and
in Zoroastrianism. The number of these heavens, the higher
transcending the lower in glory, varied from three to seven.
Heaven, as in the Hebrew shamayim, the Greek οὐρανός, the
Latin caelum, is the abode of God, and as such in Christian
eschatology is the place of the blessed in the next world (see
Eschatology and Paradise).
HEBBEL, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1813–1863), German
poet and dramatist, was born at Wesselburen in Ditmarschen,
Holstein, on the 18th of March 1813. Though only the son of a
poor bricklayer, he early showed a talent for poetry, which was
first displayed to the world by the publication, in the Hamburg
Modezeitung, of verses which he had sent to Amalie Schoppe
(1791–1858), a then popular journalist and author of nursery
tales. Through the kindness of this lady, who interested several
of her friends on his behalf, he was enabled to go to Hamburg
and there prepare himself for the university.
A year later he went to Heidelberg to study
law, but finding this uncongenial he passed
on to the university of Munich, where he
devoted himself to philosophy, history and
literature. In 1839 Hebbel left Munich and
wandered back to Hamburg on foot, where
he resumed his relations with Elsie Lensing,
whose self-sacrificing assistance had helped
him over the darkest days in Munich. In
the same year he wrote his first tragedy
Judith (published 1841), which in the
following year was performed in Hamburg
and Berlin and made his name known throughout Germany.
In 1840 he wrote the tragedy Genoveva, and the following year
finished a comedy, Der Diamant, which he had begun at Munich.
In 1842 he visited Copenhagen, where he obtained from the
king of Denmark a small travelling studentship, which enabled
him to spend some time in Paris and two years (1844–1846) in
Italy. In Paris he wrote his fine “tragedy of common life,”
Maria Magdalene (1844). On his return from Italy Hebbel
met at Vienna two Polish noblemen, the brothers Zerboni di
Sposetti, who in their enthusiasm for his genius urged him to
remain, and supplied him with the means to mingle in the best
intellectual society of the Austrian capital. The unwonted
life of ease had its effect. The old precarious existence became
a horror to him, he made a deliberate breach with it by marrying
(in 1846) the beautiful and wealthy actress Christine Enghaus,
ruthlessly sacrificing the girl who had given up all for him and
who remained faithful till her death, on the ground that “a
man’s first duty is to the most powerful force within him, that
which alone can give him happiness and be of service to the
world”: in his case the poetical faculty, which would have
perished “in the miserable struggle for existence.” This “deadly
sin,” which, “if peace of conscience be the test of action,” was,
he considered, the best act of his life, established his fortunes.
Elise, however, still provided useful inspiration for his art. As
late as 1855, shortly after her death, he wrote the little epic
Mutter und Kind, intended to show that the relation of parent
and child is the essential factor which makes the quality of
happiness among all classes and under all conditions equal.
Long before this Hebbel had become famous. German sovereigns
bestowed decorations upon him; and in foreign capitals he
was fêted as the greatest of living German dramatists. From
the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar he received a flattering invitation
to take up his residence at Weimar, where several of his plays
were first performed. He remained, however, at Vienna until
his death on the 13th of December 1863.
Besides the works already mentioned, Hebbel’s principal tragedies are Herodes und Mariamne (1850); Julia (1851); Michel Angelo (1851); Agnes Bernauer (1855); Gyges und sein Ring (1856), and the magnificently conceived trilogy Die Nibelungen (1862), his last work (consisting of a prologue, Der gehörnte Siegfried, and the tragedies, Siegfrieds Tod and Kriemhilds Rache), which won for the author the Schiller prize. Of his comedies Der Diamant (1847), Der Rubin (1850), and the tragi-comedy Ein Trauerspiel in Sizilien (1845), are the more important, but they are heavy and hardly rise above mediocrity. All his dramatic productions, however, exhibit skill in characterization, great glow of passion, and a true feeling for dramatic situation; but their poetic effect is frequently marred by extravagances which border on the grotesque, and by the introduction of incidents the unpleasant character of which is not sufficiently relieved. In many of his lyric poems, and especially in Mutter und Kind, published in 1859, Hebbel showed that his poetic gifts were not restricted to the drama.
His collected works were first published by E. Kuh (12 vols.,
