(1881); A. Weir, A Student’s Introduction to Critical Philosophy
(1906); G. A. Wyneken, Hegel’s Kritik Kants (1898); W. Windelband,
Kuno Fischer und sein Kant (1897).
On Kant’s theory of education, see E. F. Büchner, The Educational Theory of Immanuel Kant (trans., ed., intro., 1904); trans. of Ueber Pädagogik by Annette Churton (1899); J. Geluk, Kant (1883). (R. Ad.; X.)
KANURI, or Beriberi, an African tribe of mixed origin, the
dominant race of Bornu. They are large-boned and coarse-featured,
but contain nevertheless a distinct strain of Fula
blood. Beriberi (or Berberi) is the name given them by the
Hausa (see Bornu).
KAOLIN, a pure white clay, know also as china-clay, since it
is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of china, or porcelain.
The word kaolin, formerly written by some authors
caulin, is said to be a corruption of the Chinese Kau-ling, meaning
“High Ridge,” the name of a hill east of King-te-chen, whence
the earliest samples of the clay sent to Europe were obtained
by the Père d’Entrecolles, a French Jesuit missionary in China
in the early part of the 18th century. His specimens, examined
in Paris by R. A. Réaumur, showed that true porcelain, the
composition of which had not previously been known in Europe,
contained two essential ingredients, which came to be known—though
it now appears incorrectly—as kaolin and petuntse,
corresponding respectively to our china-clay and china-stone.
The kaolin confers plasticity on the paste and secures retention
of form for the ware when exposed to the heat of the kiln, whilst
the petuntse gives the translucency so characteristic of porcelain.
Some of the earliest discoveries of kaolin in Europe were at
Aue, near Schneeberg in Saxony, and at St Yrieix, near Limoges
in France. In England it was discovered in Cornwall about
the year 1750 by William Cookworthy, of Plymouth; and in
1768 he took out his patent for making porcelain from moorstone
or growan (china-stone) and growan clay (kaolin), the latter
imparting “whiteness and infusibility” to the china. These
raw materials were found first at Tregonning Hill, near Breage,
and afterwards at St Stephen’s in Brannel, near St Austell;
and their discovery led to the manufacture of hard paste, or true
porcelain, at Plymouth and subsequently at Bristol.
Kaolin is a hydrous aluminium silicate, having the formula H4Al2Si2O9, or Al2Si2O7·2H2O, but in common clay this silicate is largely mixed with impurities. Certain clays contain pearly white hexagonal scales, usually microscopic, referable to the monoclinic system, and having the chemical composition of kaolin. This crystalline substance was termed kaolinite by S. W. Johnson and J. M. Blake in 1867, and it is now regarded as the basis of pure clay. The kaolinite of Amlwch in Anglesey has been studied by Allan Dick. The origin of kaolin may be traced to the alteration of certain aluminous silicates like feldspar, scapolite, beryl and topaz; but all large deposits of china-clay are due to the decomposition of feldspar, generally in granite, but sometimes in gneiss, pitchstone, &c. The turbidity of many feldspars is the result of partial “kaolinization,” or alteration to kaolin. The china-clay rocks of Cornwall and Devon are granites in which the orthoclase has become kaolinized. These rocks are sometimes known as carclazite, a name proposed by J. H. Collins from a typical locality, the Carclaze mine, near St Austell. It has often been supposed that the alteration of the granite has been effected mainly by meteoric agencies, the carbonic acid having decomposed the alkaline silicate of the feldspar, whilst the aluminous silicate assumes a hydrated condition and forms kaolin. In many cases, however, it seems likely that the change has been effected by subterranean agencies, probably by heated vapours carrying fluorine and boron, since minerals containing these elements, like tourmaline, often occur in association with the china-clay. According to F. H. Butler the kaolinization of the west of England granite may have been effected by a solution of carbonic acid at a high temperature, acting from below.
The china-stone, or petuntse, is a granitic rock which still retains much of the unaltered feldspar, on which its fusibility depends. In order to prepare kaolin for the market, the china-clay rock is broken up, and the clay washed out by means of water. The liquid containing the clay in mechanical suspension is run into channels called “drags” where the coarser impurities subside, and whence it passes to another set of channels known as “micas,” where the finer materials settle down. Thus purified, the clay-water is led into a series of pits or tanks, in which the finely divided clay is slowly deposited; and, after acquiring sufficient consistency, it is transferred to the drying-house, or “dry,” heated by flues, where the moisture is expelled, and the kaolin obtained as a soft white earthy substance. The clay has extensive application in the arts, being used not only in ceramic manufacture but in paper-making, bleaching and various chemical industries.
Under the species “kaolinite” may be included several minerals which have received distinctive names, such as the Saxon mineral called from its pearly lustre nacrite, a name originally given by A. Brongniart to a nacreous mica; pholerite found chiefly in cracks of ironstone and named by J. Guillemin from the Greek φολίς, a scale; and lithomarge, the old German Steinmark, a compact clay-like body of white, yellow or red colour. Dr C. Hintze has pointed out that the word pholerite should properly be written pholidite (φολίς, φολίδος). Closely related to kaolinite is the mineral called halloysite, a name given to it by P. Berthier after his uncle Omalius d’Halloy, the Belgian geologist. (F. W. R.*)
KAPUNDA, a municipal town of Light county, South Australia,
48 m. by rail N.N.E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1805.
It is the centre of a large wheat-growing district. The celebrated
copper mines discovered in 1843 were closed in 1879. There are
quarries near the town, in which is found fine marble of every
colour from dark blue to white. This marble was largely used
in the Houses of Parliament at Adelaide.
KAPURTHALA, a native state of India, within the Punjab.
Area, 652 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 314,341, showing an increase of
5% in the decade; estimated gross revenue, £178,000; tribute,
£8700. The Kapurthala family is descended from Jassa Singh,
a contemporary of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah, who by his
intelligence and bravery made himself the leading Sikh of his
day. At one time it held possessions on both sides of the Sutlej,
and also in the Bari Doab. The cis-Sutlej estates and scattered
tracts in the Bari Doab were forfeited owing to the hostility
of the chief in the first Sikh war; but the latter were afterwards
restored in recognition of the loyalty of Raja Randhir Singh
during the mutiny of 1857, when he led a contingent to Oudh
which did good service. He also received a grant of land in
Oudh, 700 sq. m. in extent, yielding a gross rental of £89,000.
In Oudh, however, he exercises no sovereign powers, occupying
only the status of a large landholder, with the title of Raja-i-Rajagan.
Raja Sir Jagatjit Singh, K.C.S.I., was born in 1872,
succeeded his father in 1877, and attained his majority in 1890.
During the Tirah expedition of 1897–98 the Kapurthala imperial
service infantry took a prominent part. The territory is crossed
by the railway from Jullundur to Amritsar. The state has a
large export trade in wheat, sugar, tobacco and cotton. The
hand-painted cloths and metal-work of Phagwara are well
known. The town of Kapurthala is 11 miles from Jullundur;
pop. (1901), 18,519.
KARACHI, or Kurrachee, a seaport and district of British
India, in the Sind province of Bombay. The city is situated at
the extreme western end of the Indus delta, 500 m. by sea from
Bombay and 820 m. by rail from Lahore, being the maritime
terminus of the North-Western railway, and the main gateway
for the trade of the Punjab and part of central Asia. It is also
the capital of the province of Sind. Pop. (1881), 73,500;
(1891), 105,199; (1901), 115,407. Before 1725 no town appears
to have existed here; but about that time some little trade began
to centre upon the convenient harbour, and the silting up of
Shahbandar, the ancient port of Sind, shortly afterwards drove
much of its former trade and population to the rising village.
Under the Kalhora princes, the khan of Kalat obtained a grant
of the town, but in 1795 it was captured by the Talpur Mirs, who
built the fort at Manora, at the entrance to the harbour. They
also made considerable efforts to increase the trade of the port
