breaks the connexion between xii. 31 and xiii. 33 seq. The
latter describe the idolatrous worship instituted by the first
king of the schismatic north, and the religious attitude occurs
regularly throughout the compiler’s epitome, however brief
the reigns of the kings. In the account of Nadab, xv. 25 seq.,
29b, 30 seq. are certainly the compiler’s, and the synchronism in
v. 28 must also be editorial; xv. 32 (Septuagint omit) and 16
are duplicates leading up to the Israelite and Judaean accounts
of Baasha respectively. But xv. 33–xvi. 7 contains little
annalistic information, and the prophecy in xvi. 1–4 is very
similar to xiv. 7–11, which in turn breaks the connexion between
vv. 6 and 12. Ch. xvi. 7 is a duplicate to vv. 1–4 and out of place;
the Septuagint inserts it in the middle of v. 8. The brief reign
of Elah preserves an important entract in xvi. 9, but the date
in v. 10a (LXX. omits) presupposes the late finished chronological
scheme. Zimri’s seven days receive the inevitable condemnation,
but the older material embedded in the framework (xvi. 15b–18)
is closely connected with v. 9 and is continued in the non-editorial
portions of Omri’s reign (xvi. 21 seq., length of reign in
v. 23, and v. 24). The achievements of Omri to which the
editor refers can fortunately be gathered from external sources
(see Omri). Under Omri’s son Ahab the separate kingdoms
converge.
Next, as to Judah: the vivid account of the accession of Rehoboam in xii. 1–16 is reminiscent of the full narratives in 2 Sam. ix.–xx.; 1 Kings i., ii. (cf. especially v. 16 with 2 Sam. xx. 1); xii. 15b refers to the prophecy of Ahijah (see above), and “unto this day,” v. 19, cannot be by a contemporary author; v. 17 (LXX. omits) finds a parallel in 2 Chron. xi. 16 seq., and could represent an Ephraimite standpoint. The Judaean standpoint is prominent in vv. 21–24, where (a) the inclusion of Benjamin and (b) the cessation of war (at the command of Shemaiah) conflict with (a) xi. 32, 36, xii. 20 and (b) xiv. 30 respectively. Rehoboam’s history, resumed by the redactor in xiv. 21–24, continues with a brief account of the spoiling of the Temple and palace by Sheshonk (Shishak). (The incident appears in 2 Chron. xii. in a rather different context, before the details which now precede v. 21 seq.) The reign of Abijam is entirely due to the editor, whose brief statement of the war in xv. 7b is supplemented by a lengthy story in 2 Chron. xiii. (where the name is Abijah). Ch. xv. 5b (last clause) and v. 6 are omitted by the Septuagint, the former is a unique gloss (see 2 Sam. xi. seq.), the latter is a mere repetition of xiv. 30; with xv. 2 cf. v. 10. The account of Asa’s long reign contains a valuable summary of his war with Baasha, xv. 16–22; the isolated v. 15 is quite obscure and is possibly related to v. 18 (but cf. vii. 51). His successor Jehoshaphat is now dealt with completely in xxii. 41–50 after the death of Ahab; but the Septuagint, which follows a different chronological scheme (placing his accession in the reign of Omri), gives the summary (with some variations) after xvi. 28. Another light is thrown upon the incomplete annalistic fragments (xxii. 44, 47–49) by 2 Chron. xx. 35–37: the friendship between Judah and Israel appears to have been displeasing to the redactor of Kings.
The history of the few years between the close of Ahab’s
life and the accession of Jehu covers about one-third of the
entire book of Kings. This is due to the inclusion
of a number of narratives which are partly of
a political character, and partly are interested in
Ephraim from Ahab
to Jehu.
the work of contemporary prophets. The climax is reached
in the overthrow of Omri’s dynasty by the usurper Jehu,
when, after a period of close intercourse between Israel and
Judah, its two kings perished. The annals of each kingdom
would naturally deal independently with these events, but
the present literary structure of 1 Kings xvii.–2 Kings xi. is
extremely complicated by the presence of the narratives referred
to. First as regards the framework, the epitome of Ahab is
preserved in xvi. 29–34 and xxii. 39; it contains some unknown
references (his ivory house and cities), and a stern religious
judgment upon his Phoenician alliance, on which the intervening
chapters throw more light. The colourless summary of his son
Ahaziah (xxii. 51–53)[1] finds its conclusion in 2 Kings i. 17 seq.
where v. 18 should precede the accession of his brother Jehoram
(v. 17b). Jehoram is again introduced in iii. 1–3 (note the
variant synchronism), but the usual conclusion is wanting. In
Judah, Jehoshaphat was succeeded by his son Jehoram, who had
married Athaliah the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel (viii. 16–24);
to the annalistic details (vv. 20–22) 2 Chron. xxi. 11 sqq. adds
a novel narrative. His son Ahaziah (viii. 25 sqq.) is similarly
denounced for his relations with Israel. He is again introduced
in the isolated ix. 29, while Lucian’s recension adds after x. 36
a variant summary of his reign but without the regular introduction.
Further confusion appears in the Septuagint, which
inserts after i. 18 (Jehoram of Israel) a notice corresponding
to iii. 1–3, and concludes “and the anger of the Lord was
kindled against the house of Ahab.” This would be appropriate
in a position nearer ix. seq. where the deaths of Jehoram and
Ahaziah are described. These and other examples of serious
disorder in the framework may be associated with the literary
features of the narratives of Elijah and Elisha.
Of the more detailed narratives those that deal with the northern kingdom are scarcely Judaean (see 1 Kings xix. 3), and they do not criticize Elijah’s work, as the Judaean compiler denounces the whole history of the north. But they are plainly not of one origin. To supplement the articles Elijah and Elisha, it is to be noticed that the account of Naboth’s death in the history of Elijah (1 Kings xxi.) differs in details from that in the history of Elisha and Jehu (2 Kings ix.), and the latter more precise narrative presupposes events recorded in the extant accounts of Elijah but not these events themselves. In 1 Kings xx., xxii. 1–28 (xxi. follows xix. in the LXX.) Ahab is viewed rather more favourably than in the Elijah-narratives (xix., xxi.) or in the compiler’s summary. Ch. xxii. 6, moreover, proves that there is some exaggeration in xviii. 4, 13; the great contest between Elijah and the king, between Yahweh and Baal, has been idealized. The denunciation of Ahab in xx. 35–43 has some notable points of contact with xiii. and seems to be a supplement to the preceding incidents. Ch. xxii. is important for its ideas of prophetism (especially vv. 19–23; cf. Ezek. xiv. 9; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1 [in contrast to 1 Chron. xxi. 1]); a gloss at the end of v. 28, omitted by the Septuagint, wrongly identifies Micaiah with the well-known Micah (i. 2). Although the punishment passed upon Ahab in xxi. 20 sqq. (20b–26 betray the compiler’s hand; cf. xiv. 10 seq.) is modified in v. 29, this is ignored in the account of his death, xxii. 38, which takes place at Samaria (see below).
The episode of Elijah and Ahaziah (2 Kings i.) is marked by the revelation through an angel. The prophet’s name appears in an unusual form (viz. ēliyyah, not -yahu), especially in vv. 2–8. The prediction of Ahaziah’s fate finds a parallel in 2 Chron. xxi. 12–15; the more supernatural additions have been compared with the late story in 1 Sam. xix. 18–24. The ascension of Elijah (2 Kings ii.) is related as the introduction to the work of Elisha, which apparently begins before the death of Jehoshaphat (see iii. 1, 11 sqq.; contrast 2 Chron. loc. cit.). Among the stories of Elisha are some which find him at the head of the prophetic gilds (iv. 1, 38–44, vi. 1–7), whilst in others he has friendly relations with the “king of Israel” and the court. As a personage of almost superhuman dignity he moves in certain narratives where political records appear to have been utilized to describe the activity of the prophets. The Moabite campaign (iii.) concerns a revolt already referred to in the isolated i. 1; there are parallels with the story of Jehoshaphat and Ahab (iii. 7, 11 seq.; cf. 1 Kings xxii. 4 seq., 7 sqq.), contrast, however, xxii. 7 (where Elijah is not even named) and iii. 11 seq. But Jehoshaphat’s death has been already recorded (1 Kings xxii. 50), and, while Lucian’s recension in 2 Kings iii. reads Ahaziah, i. 17 presupposes the accession of the Judaean Jehoram. Other political narratives may underlie the stories of the Aramaean wars; with vi. 24–vii. 20 (after the complete cessation of hostilities in vi. 23) compare the general style of 1 Kings xx., xxii.; with the famine in Samaria, vi. 25; cf. ibid. xvii.; with the victory, cf. ibid. xx. The account of Elisha and Hazael (viii. 7–15) implies friendly relations with Damascus (in v. 12 the terrors of war are in the future), but the description of Jehu’s accession (ix.) is in the midst of hostilities. Ch. ix. 7–10a are a Deuteronomic insertion amplifying the message in vv. 3–6 (cf. 1 Kings xxi. 20 seq.). The origin of the repetition in ix. 14–15a (cf. viii. 28 seq.) is not clear. The oracle in ix. 25 seq. is not that in 1 Kings xxi. 19 seq., and mentions the additional detail that Naboth’s sons were slain. Here his field or portion is located near Jezreel, but in 1 Kings xxi. 18 his vineyard is by the royal palace in Samaria (cf. xxii. 38 and contrast xxi. 1, where the LXX. omits reference to Jezreel). This fluctuation reappears in 2 Kings x. 1, 11 seq., and 17; in ix. 27 compared with 2 Chron. xxii. 9; and in the singular duplication of an historical incident, viz. the war against the Aramaeans at Ramoth-Gilead (a) by Jehoshaphat and Ahab, and (b) by Ahaziah and Jehoram, in each
- ↑ The division of the two books at this point is an innovation first made in the LXX. and Vulgate.
