his native town, but as he was not on good terms with Goethe, and had openly attacked the Romantic school, his position in Weimar was not a pleasant one. He had thoughts of returning to St Petersburg, and on his journey thither he was, for some unknown reason, arrested at the frontier and transported to Siberia. Fortunately he had written a comedy which flattered the vanity of the emperor Paul I.; he was consequently speedily brought back, presented with an estate from the crown lands of Livonia, and made director of the German theatre in St Petersburg. He returned to Germany when the emperor Paul died, and again settled in Weimar; he found it, however, as impossible as ever to gain a footing in literary society, and turned his steps to Berlin, where in association with Garlieb Merkel (1769–1850) he edited Der Freimütige (1803–1807) and began his Almanach dramatischer Spiele (1803–1820). Towards the end of 1806 he was once more in Russia, and in the security of his estate in Esthonia wrote many satirical articles against Napoleon in his journals Die Biene and Die Grille. As councillor of state he was attached in 1816 to the department for foreign affairs in St Petersburg, and in 1817 went to Germany as a kind of spy in the service of Russia, with a salary of 15,000 roubles. In a weekly journal (Literarisches Wochenblatt) which he published in Weimar he scoffed at the pretensions of those Germans who demanded free institutions, and became an object of such general dislike that he was obliged to move to Mannheim. He was especially detested by the young enthusiasts for liberty, and one of them, Karl Ludwig Sand, a theological student, stabbed him, in Mannheim, on the 23rd of March 1819. Sand was executed, and the government made his crime an excuse for placing the universities under strict supervision.
Besides his plays, Kotzebue wrote several historical works, which, however, are too one-sided and prejudiced to have much value. Of more interest are his autobiographical writings, Meine Flucht nach Paris im Winter 1790 (1791), Über meinen Aufenthalt in Wien (1799), Das merkwürdigste Jahr meines Lebens (1801), Erinnerungen aus Paris (1804), and Erinnerungen von meiner Reise aus Liefland nach Rom und Neapel (1805). As a dramatist he was extraordinarily prolific, his plays numbering over 200; his popularity, not merely on the German, but on the European stage, was unprecedented. His success, however, was due less to any conspicuous literary or poetic ability than to an extraordinary facility in the invention of effective situations; he possessed, as few German playwrights before or since, the unerring instinct for the theatre; and his influence on the technique of the modern drama from Scribe to Sardou and from Bauernfeld to Sudermann is unmistakable. Kotzebue is to be seen to best advantage in his comedies, such as Der Wildfang, Die beiden Klingsberg and Die deutschen Kleinstädter, which contain admirable genre pictures of German life. These plays held the stage in Germany long after the once famous Menschenhass und Reue (known in England as The Stranger), Graf Benjowsky, or ambitious exotic tragedies like Die Sonnenjungfrau and Die Spanier in Peru (which Sheridan adapted as Pizarro) were forgotten.
Two collections of Kotzebue’s dramas were published during his lifetime: Schauspiele (5 vols., 1797); Neue Schauspiele (23 vols., 1798–1820). His Sämtliche dramatische Werke appeared in 44 vols., in 1827–1829, and again, under the title Theater, in 40 vols., in 1840–1841. A selection of his plays in 10 vols, appeared at Leipzig in 1867–1868. Cp. H. Döring, A. von Kotzebues Leben (1830); W. von Kotzebue, A. von Kotzebue (1881); Ch. Rabany, Kotzebue, sa vie et son temps (1893); W. Sellier, Kotzebue in England (1901).
KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787–1846), Russian navigator, second son of the foregoing, was born at Reval on the 30th of December 1787. After being educated at the St Petersburg school of cadets, he accompanied Krusenstern on his voyage of 1803–1806. After his promotion to lieutenant Kotzebue was placed in command of an expedition, fitted out at the expense of the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff, in the brig “Rurick.” In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotzebue set out on the 30th of July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic Ocean and explore the less-known parts of Oceania. Proceeding by Cape Horn, he discovered the Romanzov, Rurik and Krusenstern Islands, then made for Kamchatka, and in the middle of July proceeded northward, coasting along the north-west coast of America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue Gulf or Sound and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sandwich Islands, and on the 1st of January 1817 discovered New Year Island. After some further cruising in the Pacific he again proceeded north, but a severe attack of illness compelling him to return to Europe, he reached the Neva on the 3rd of August 1818, bringing home a large collection of previously unknown plants and much new ethnological information. In 1823 Kotzebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the command of an expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a staff of scientists on board, who collected much valuable information and material in geography, ethnography and natural history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. Many positions along the coast were rectified, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expedition returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia and Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the 10th of July 1826. There are English translations of both Kotzebue’s narratives: A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering’s Straits for the Purpose of exploring a North-East Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815–1818 (3 vols. 1821), and A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823–1826 (1830). Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotzebue died at Reval on the 15th of February 1846.
KOUMISS, milk-wine, or milk brandy, a fermented alcoholic
beverage prepared from milk. It is of very ancient
origin, and according to Herodotus was known to the Scythians.
The name is said to be derived from an ancient Asiatic tribe,
the Kumanes or Komans. It is one of the staple articles of diet
of the Siberian and Caucasian races, but of late years it has also
been manufactured on a considerable scale in western Europe,
on account of its valuable medicinal properties. It is generally
made from mares’ or camels’ milk by a process of fermentation
set up by the addition to the fresh milk of a small quantity of
the finished article. This fermentation, which appears to be
of a symbiotic nature, being dependent on the action of two distinct
types of organisms, the one a fission fungus, the other a
true yeast, eventuates in the conversion of a part of the milk
sugar into lactic acid and alcohol. Koumiss generally contains
1 to 2% of alcohol, 0.5 to 1.5% of lactic acid, 2 to 4% of milk
sugar and 1 to 2% of fat. Kefir is similar to koumiss, but is
usually prepared from cows’ milk, and the fermentation is brought
about by the so-called Kefir Grains (derived from a plant).
KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS (1814–1883), Greek
statesman, whose name is commonly spelt Coumoundouros,
was born in 1814. His studies at the university of Athens were
repeatedly interrupted for lack of means, and he began to earn
his living as a clerk. He took part in the Cretan insurrection
of 1841, and in the demonstration of 1843, by which the Greek
constitution was obtained from King Otto, he was secretary to
General Theodoraki Grivas. He then settled down to the bar at
Kalamata in Messenia, where he married a lady belonging to
the Mavromichalis family. He was elected to the chamber in
1851, and four years later his eloquence and ability had secured
the president’s chair for him. He became minister of finance
in 1856, and again in 1857 and 1859. He adhered to the moderate
wing of the Liberal party until the revolution of 1862 and
the dethronement of King Otto, when he was minister of justice
in the provincial government. He was twice minister of the
interior under Kanaris, in 1864 and in 1865. In March 1865 he
became prime minister, and he formed several subsequent administrations
in the intervals of the ascendancy of Tricoupi. During
the Cretan insurrection of 1866–68 he made active warlike
preparations against Turkey, but was dismissed by King George,
who recognized that Greece could not act without the support of
the Powers. He was again premier at the time of the outbreak
