the old hand method is already replaced in part by an improved device whereby the diamond is held by adjustable claws, on a base that can be rotated, so as to apply it in any desired position. By this means the time and trouble of repeated re-setting in the dop are saved, as well as the liability to injury from the heating and cooling; the services of special “setters” are also made needless.
The rapid development of mechanical devices for the several stages of diamond cutting has already greatly influenced the art. A very interesting comparison was brought out in the thirteenth report of the American Commissioner of Labour, as to the aspects and relations of hand-work and machinery in this branch of industry. It appeared from the data gathered that the advantage lay with machinery as to time and with hand-work as to cost, in the ratios respectively of 1 to 3.38 and 1.76 to 1. In other words, about half the gain in time is lost by increased expense in the use of machine methods. A great many devices and applications have been developed within the last few years, owing to the immense increase in the production of diamonds from the South African mines, and their consequent widespread use.
History of Diamond Cutting.—The East Indian diamonds, many of which are doubtless very ancient, were polished in the usual Oriental fashion by merely rounding off the angles. Among church jewels in Europe are a few diamonds of unknown age and source, cut four-sided, with a table above and a pyramid below. Several cut diamonds are recorded among the treasures of Louis of Anjou in the third quarter of the 14th century. But the first definite accounts of diamond polishing are early in the century following, when one Hermann became noted for such work in Paris. The modern method of “brilliant” cutting, however, is generally ascribed to Louis de Berquem, of Bruges, who in 1475 cut several celebrated diamonds sent to him by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. He taught this process to many pupils, who afterwards settled in Antwerp and Amsterdam, which have been the chief centres of diamond cutting ever since. Peruzzi was the artist who worked out the theory of the well-proportioned brilliant of 58 facets. Some very fine work was done early in London also, but most of the workmen were Jews, who, being objectionable in England, finally betook themselves to Amsterdam and Antwerp. Efforts have been lately made to re-establish the art in London, where, as the great diamond mart of the world, it should peculiarly belong.
The same unwise policy was even more marked in Portugal. That nation had its colonial possessions in India, following the voyages and discoveries of Da Gama, and thus became the chief importer of diamonds into Europe. Early in the 18th century, also, the diamond-mines were discovered in Brazil, which was then likewise a Portuguese possession; thus the whole diamond product of the world came to Portugal, and there was naturally developed in Lisbon an active industry of cutting and polishing diamonds. But in time the Jews were forced away, and went to Holland and Belgium, where diamond cutting has been concentrated since the middle of the 18th century.
It is of interest to trace the recent endeavours to establish diamond cutting in the United States. The pioneer in this movement was Henry D. Morse of Boston, associated with James W. Yerrington of New York. He opened a diamond-cutting establishment about 1860 and carried it on for some years, training a number of young men and women, who became the best cutters in the country. But the chief importance of his work lay in its superior quality. So long had it been a monopoly of the Dutch and Belgians that it was declining into a mere mechanical trade. Morse studied the diamond scientifically and taught his pupils how important mathematical exactitude in cutting was to the beauty and value of the gem. He thus attained a perfection rarely seen before, and gave a great stimulus to the art. Shops were opened in London as well, in consequence of Morse’s success; and many valuable diamonds were recut in the United States after his work became known. This fact in turn reacted upon the cutter abroad, especially in France and Switzerland; and thus the general standard of the art was greatly advanced.
Diamond cutting in the United States is now a well-established industry. From 1882 to 1885 a number of American jewelers undertook such work, but for various reasons it was not found practicable then. Ten years later, however, there were fifteen firms engaged in diamond cutting, giving employment to nearly 150 men in the various processes involved. In the year 1894 a number of European diamond workers came over; some foreign capital became engaged; and a rapid development of diamond cutting took place. This movement was caused by the low tariff on uncut diamonds as compared with that on cut stones. It went so far as to be felt seriously abroad; but in a year or two it declined, owing partly to strikes and partly to legal questions as to the application of some of the tariff provisions. At the close of 1895, however, there were still some fourteen establishments in and near New York, employing about 500 men. Since then the industry has gradually developed. Many of the European diamond workers who came over to America remained and carried on their art; and the movement then begun has become permanent. New York is now recognized as one of the chief diamond-cutting centres; there are some 500 cutters, and the quality of work done is fully equal, if not superior, to any in the Old World. So well is this fact established that American-cut diamonds are exported and sold in Europe to a considerable and an increasing extent.
In the Brazilian diamond region of Minas Geraes an industry of cutting has grown up since 1875. Small mills are run by water power, and the machinery, as well as the methods, are from Holland. This Brazilian diamond work is done both well and cheaply, and supplies the local market.
The leading position in diamond working still belongs to Amsterdam, where the number of persons engaged in the industry has trebled since about 1875, in consequence of the enormous increase in the world’s supply of diamonds. The number now amounts to 15,000, about one-third of whom are actual cleavers, cutters, polishers, &c. The number of cutting establishments in Amsterdam is about seventy, containing some 7000 mills.
Antwerp comes next with about half as many mills and a total of some 4500 persons engaged in all departments, including about seventy women. These are distributed among thirty-five or forty establishments. A majority of the workers are Belgians, but there are many Dutch, Poles and Austro-Hungarians, principally Jews. Among these numerous employees there is much opportunity for dishonesty, and but little surveillance, actual or possible; yet losses from this cause are almost unknown. The wages paid are good, averaging from £2, 9s. 6d. to £2, 17s. 6d. a week. Sorters receive from 28s. to £2; cutters from £2, 9s. 6d to £3, 6s., and cleavers from £3, 14s. upwards.
With the recent introduction of electricity in diamond cutting there has been a revolution in that industry. Whereas formerly wheels were made to revolve by steam, they are now placed in direct connexion with electric motors, although there is not a motor to each machine. The saws for slitting the diamond can thus be made to revolve much more rapidly, and there is a cleanliness and a speed about the work never before attained. (G. F. K.)
LAPILLI (pl. of Ital. lapillo, from Lat. lapillus, dim. of lapis,
a stone), a name applied to small fragments of lava ejected from
a volcano. They are generally subangular in shape and vesicular
in structure, varying in size from a pea to a walnut. In the
Neapolitan dialect the word becomes rapilli—a form sometimes
used by English writers on volcanoes. (See Volcanoes.)
LAPIS LAZULI, or azure stone,[1] a mineral substance valued
for decorative purposes in consequence of the fine blue colour
which it usually presents. It appears to have been the sapphire
of ancient writers: thus Theophrastus describes the σάπφειρος
as being spotted with gold-dust, a description quite inappropriate
to modern sapphire, but fully applicable to lapis lazuli, for this
stone frequently contains disseminated particles of iron-pyrites of
gold-like appearance. Pliny, too, refers to the sapphirus as
a stone sprinkled with specks of gold; and possibly an allusion
to the same character may be found in Job xxviii. 6. The
Hebrew sappir, denoting a stone in the High Priest’s breastplate,
was probably lapis lazuli, as acknowledged in the Revised
Version of the Bible. With the ancient Egyptians lapis lazuli
was a favourite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs;
it was also used to a limited extent by the Assyrians and Babylonians
for cylinder seals. It has been suggested that the
Egyptians obtained it from Persia in exchange for their emeralds.
When the lapis lazuli contains pyrites, the brilliant spots in the
deep blue matrix invite comparison with the stars in the firmament.
The stone seems to have been sometimes called by ancient
writers κύανος. It was a favourite material with the Italians
of the Cinquecento for vases, small busts and other ornaments.
Magnificent examples of the decorative use of lapis lazuli are to
be seen in St Petersburg, notably in the columns of St Isaac’s
cathedral. The beautiful blue colour of lapis lazuli led to its
employment, when ground and levigated, as a valuable pigment
known as ultramarine (q.v.), a substance now practically displaced
by a chemical product (artificial ultramarine).
Lapis lazuli occurs usually in compact masses, with a finely granular structure; and occasionally, but only as a great rarity,
- ↑ The Med. Gr. λαζούριον, Med. Lat. lazurius or lazulus, as the names of this mineral substance, were adaptations of the Arab. al-lazward, Pers. lājward, blue colour, lapis lazuli. The same word appears in Med. Lat. as azura, whence O.F. azur, Eng. “azure,” blue, particularly used of that colour in heraldry (q.v.) and represented conventionally in black and white by horizontal lines.
