he was appointed as second clarinet to the Sacred Harmonic Society. From Willman’s death in 1840 Lazarus was principal clarinet at the opera, and all the chief festivals and orchestral concerts. His beautiful tone, excellent phrasing and accurate execution were greatly admired. He was professor of the clarinet at the Royal Academy of Music from 1854 until within a short time of his death, and was appointed to teach his instrument at the Military School of Music, Kneller Hall, in 1858. His last public appearance was at a concert for his benefit in St James’s Hall, in June 1892, and he died on the 6th of March 1895.
LAZARUS, MORITZ (1824–1903), German philosopher, was
born on the 15th of September 1824 at Filehne, Posen. The
son of a rabbinical scholar, he was educated in Hebrew literature
and history, and subsequently in law and philosophy at the
university of Berlin. From 1860 to 1866 he was professor in
the university of Berne, and subsequently returned to Berlin
as professor of philosophy in the kriegsakademie (1868) and
later in the university of Berlin (1873). On the occasion of his
seventieth birthday he was honoured with the title of Geheimrath.
The fundamental principle of his philosophy was that truth
must be sought not in metaphysical or a priori abstractions but
in psychological investigation, and further that this investigation
cannot confine itself successfully to the individual consciousness,
but must be devoted primarily to society as a whole. The
psychologist must study mankind from the historical or comparative
standpoint, analysing the elements which constitute the
fabric of society, with its customs, its conventions and the
main tendencies of its evolution. This Völkerpsychologie (folk- or
comparative psychology) is one of the chief developments of
the Herbartian theory of philosophy; it is a protest not only
against the so-called scientific standpoint of natural philosophers,
but also against the individualism of the positivists. In support
of his theory he founded, in combination with H. Steinthal,
the Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft
(1859). His own contributions to this periodical were numerous
and important. His chief work was Das Leben der Seele (Berlin,
1855–1857; 3rd edition, 1883). Other philosophical works
were:—Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten (1860 and 1867), Ueber
die Ideen in der Geschichte (1865 and 1872); Zur Lehre von den
Sinnestäuschungen (1867); Ideale Fragen (1875 and 1885),
Erziehung und Geschichte (1881); Unser Standpunkt (1881);
Ueber die Reize des Spiels (1883). Apart from the great interest
of his philosophical work, Lazarus was pre-eminent among the
Jews of the so-called Semitic domination in Germany. Like
Heine, Auerbach and Steinthal, he rose superior to the narrower
ideals of the German Jews, and took a leading place in German
literature and thought. He protested against the violent
anti-Semitism of the time, and, in spite of the moderate tone
of his publications, drew upon himself unqualified censure. He
wrote in this connexion a number of articles collected in 1887
under the title Treu und Frei. Reden und Vorträge über Juden
und Judenthum. In 1869 and 1871 he was president of the
first and second Jewish Synods at Leipzig and Augsburg.
See R. Flint, The Philosophy of History in Europe; M. Brasch, Gesammelte Essays und Characterköpfe zur neuen Philos. und Literatur; E. Berliner, Lazarus und die öffentliche Meinung; M. Brasch, “Der Begründer de Völkerpsychologie,” in Nord et Sud, (September 1894).
LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF, a religious and military order
founded in Jerusalem about the middle of the 12th century.
Its primary object was the tending of the sick, especially lepers,
of whom Lazarus (see Lazar) was regarded as the patron.
From the 13th century, the order made its way into various
countries of Europe—Sicily, Lower Italy and Germany
(Thuringia); but its chief centre of activity was France, where
Louis IX. (1253) gave the members the lands of Boigny near
Orleans and a building at the gates of Paris, which they turned
into a lazar-house for the use of the lepers of the city. A papal
confirmation was obtained from Alexander IV. in 1255. The
knights were one hundred in number, and possessed the right
of marrying and receiving pensions charged on ecclesiastical
benefices. An eight-pointed cross was the insignia of both the
French and Italian orders. The gradual disappearance of
leprosy combined with other causes to secularize the order more
and more. In Savoy in 1572 it was merged by Gregory XIII.
(at the instance of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy) in the
order of St Maurice (see Knighthood and Chivalry: Orders
of Knighthood, Italy). The chief task of this branch was the
defence of the Catholic faith, especially against the Protestantism
of Geneva. It continued to exist till the second half of the 19th
century. In 1608 it was in France united by Henry IV. with
the order of Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel. It was treated with
especial favour by Louis XIV., and the most brilliant period
of its existence was from 1673 to 1691, under the marquis de
Louvois. From that time it began to decay. It was abolished
at the Revolution, reintroduced during the Restoration, and
formally abolished by a state decree of 1830.
See L. Mainbourg, Hist. des croisades (1682; Eng. trans. by Nalson, 1686); P. Hélyot, Hist. des ordres monastiques (1714), pp. 257, 386; J. G. Uhlhorn, Die christliche Liebesthätigkeit im Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1884); articles in Herzog-Hauck’s Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie, xi. (1902) and Wetzer and Welte’s (Catholic) Kirchenlexikon, vii. (1891).
LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825–1909), American historian,
was born at Philadelphia on the 19th of September 1825.
His father was a publisher, whom in 1843 he joined in business,
and he retained his connexion with the firm till 1880. Weak
health, however, caused him from early days to devote himself
to research, mainly on church history in the later middle ages,
and his literary reputation rests on the important books he
produced on this subject. These are: Superstition and Force
(Philadelphia, 1866, new ed. 1892); Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal
Celibacy (Philadelphia, 1867); History of the Inquisition of the
Middle Ages (New York, 1888); Chapters from the religious
history of Spain connected with the Inquisition (Philadelphia,
1890); History of auricular Confession and Indulgences in the
Latin Church (3 vols., London, 1896); The Moriscos of Spain
(Philadelphia, 1901), and History of the Inquisition of Spain
(4 vols., New York and London, 1906–1907). He also edited
a Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the 13th century (Philadelphia,
1892), and in 1908 was published his Inquisition in the
Spanish Dependencies. As an authority on the Inquisition he
stood in the highest rank of modern historians, and distinctions
were conferred on him by the universities of Harvard, Princeton,
Pennsylvania, Giessen and Moscow. He died at Philadelphia
on the 24th of October 1909.
LEAD (pronounced leed), a city of Lawrence county, South
Dakota, U.S.A., situated in the Black Hills, at an altitude of
about 5300 ft., 3 m. S.W. of Deadwood. Pop. (1890) 2581, (1900)
6210, of whom 2145 were foreign-born, (1905) 8217, (1910) 8392.
In 1905 it was second in population among the cities of the
state. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee &
St Paul railways. Lead has a hospital, the Hearst Free Library
and the Hearst Free Kindergarten, and is the see of a Roman
Catholic bishopric. It is the centre of the mining interests of the
Black Hills, and the Homestake Gold Mine here contains perhaps
the largest and most easily worked mass of low-grade ore and
one of the largest mining plants (1000 stamps) in the world; it
has also three cyanide mills. From 1878 to 1906 the value of the
gold taken from this mine amounted to about $58,000,000, and
the net value of the product of 1906 alone was approximately
$5,313,516. For two months in the spring of 1907 the mine
was rendered idle by a fire (March 25), which was so severe that
it was necessary to flood the entire mine. Mining tools and gold
jewelry are manufactured. The first settlement was made here
by mining prospectors in July 1876. Lead was chartered as a
city in 1890 and became a city of the first class in 1904.
LEAD, a metallic chemical element; its symbol is Pb (from
the Lat. plumbum), and atomic weight 207.10 (O = 16). This
metal was known to the ancients, and is mentioned in the Old
Testament. The Romans used it largely, as it is still used, for
the making of water pipes, and soldered these with an alloy of
lead and tin. Pliny treats of these two metals as plumbum
nigrum and plumbum album respectively, which seems to show
