A large number of towns have adopted electricity for street lighting. Frank Bailey has furnished particulars of photometric tests which he has made on new and old street lamps in the city of London. From these tests the following comparative figures are deduced:—
| Average total Cost per c.p. per annum. | |
| Gas— | |
| Double burner ordinary low pressure incandescent (mean of six tests) | 11.1d. |
| Single burner high-pressure gas | 9.0 |
| Double burner high-pressure gas | 11.7 |
| Arc lamp— | |
| Old type of lantern | 8 |
| Flame arc | 5 |
From these tests of candle-power the illumination at a distance of 100 ft. from the source is estimated as follows:—
| Candle Ft. | Ratio. | ||
| Double ordinary incandescent gas lamp illumination | 0.013 | = | 1.0 |
| Single high pressure ordinary incandescent gas lamp illumination | 0.016 | = | 1.24 |
| Double high pressure ordinary incandescent gas lamp illumination | 0.027 | = | 2.10 |
| Ordinary arc lamp | 0.060 | = | 4.50 |
| Flame arc lamp | 0.120 | = | 9.00 |
The cost of electricity, light for light, is very much less than that of gas. The following comparative figures relating to street lighting at Croydon have been issued by the lighting committee of that corporation:—
| Type of Lamp. | Number of Lamps. | Distance apart (yds.) | Total Cost. | Average c.p. per Mile. | Cost per c.p. per annum. |
| Incandescent gas | 2,137 | 80 | £7,062 | 839 | 15.86d. |
| Incandescent electric | 90 | 66 | 288 | 1,373 | 13.71 |
| Electric arcs | 428 | 65 | 7,212 | 10,537 | 11.32 |
Apart from cheaper methods of generation there are two main sources of economy in electric lighting. One is the improved arrangement and use of electrical installations, and the other is the employment of lamps of higher efficiency. As regards the first, increased attention has been given to the position, candle-power and shading of electric lamps so as to give the most effective illumination in varying circumstances and to avoid excess of light. The ease with which electric lamps may be switched on and off from a distance has lent itself to arrangements whereby current may be saved by switching off lights not in use and by controlling the number of lamps required to be alight at one time on an electrolier. Appreciable economies are brought about by the scientific disposition of lights and the avoidance of waste in use. As regards the other source of economy, the Nernst, the tantalum, the osram, and the metallized carbon filament lamp, although costing more in the first instance than carbon lamps, have become popular owing to their economy in current consumption. Where adopted largely they have had a distinct effect in reducing the rate of increase of output from supply undertakings, but their use has been generally encouraged as tending towards the greater popularity of electric light and an ultimately wider demand. Mercury vapour lamps for indoor and outdoor lighting have also proved their high efficiency, and the use of flame arc lamps has greatly increased the cheapness of outdoor electric lighting.
The existence of a “daylight load” tends to reduce the all-round cost of generating and distributing electricity. This daylight load is partly supplied by power for industrial purposes and partly by the demand for electricity in many domestic operations. The use of electric heating and cooking apparatus (including radiators, ovens, grills, chafing dishes, hot plates, kettles, flat-irons, curling irons, &c.) has greatly developed, and provides a load which extends intermittently throughout the greater part of the twenty-four hours. Electric fans for home ventilation are also used, and in the domestic operations where a small amount of power is required (as in driving sewing machines, boot cleaners, washing machines, mangles, knife cleaners, “vacuum” cleaners, &c.) the electric motor is being largely adopted. The trend of affairs points to a time when the total demand from such domestic sources will greatly exceed the demand for lighting only. The usual charges for current to be used in domestic heating or power operations vary from 1d. to 2d. per unit. As the demand increases the charges will undergo reduction, and there will also be a reflex action in bringing down the cost of electricity for lighting owing to the improved load factor resulting from an increase in the day demand. In the cooking and heating and motor departments also there has been improvement in the efficiency of the apparatus, and its economy is enhanced by the fact that current may be switched on and off as required.
The Board of Trade are now prepared to receive electric measuring instruments for examination or testing at their electrical standardizing laboratory, where they have a battery power admitting of a maximum current of 7000 amperes to be dealt with.Testing meters. The London county council and some other corporations are prepared upon requisition to appoint inspectors to test meters on consumers’ premises.
All supply undertakers now issue rules and regulations for the efficient wiring of electric installations. The rules and regulations issued by the institution of electrical engineers have been accepted by many local authorities and companies, and also by many of the fire insurance companies. The Wiring rules. Phoenix fire office rules were the first to be drawn up, and are adopted by many of the fire offices, but some other leading insurance offices have their own rules under which risks are accepted without extra premium. In the opinion of the insurance companies “the electric light is the safest of all illuminants and is preferable to any others when the installation has been thoroughly well put up.” Regulations have also been issued by the London county council in regard to theatres, &c., by the national board of fire underwriters of America (known as the “National Electrical Code”), by the fire underwriters association of Victoria (Commonwealth of Australia), by the Calcutta fire insurance agents association and under the Canadian Electric Light Inspection Act. In Germany rules have been issued by the Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker and by the union of private fire insurance companies of Germany, in Switzerland by the Association Suisse des électriciens, in Austria by the Elektrotechnischer Verein of Vienna, in France by ministerial decree and by the syndicat professionel des industries électriques. (For reprints of these regulations see Electrical Trades Directory.) (E. Ga.)
LIGHTNING, the visible flash that accompanies an electric
discharge in the sky. In certain electrical conditions of the
atmosphere a cloud becomes highly charged by the coalescence
of drops of vapour. A large drop formed by the fusion of many
smaller ones contains the same amount of electricity upon a
smaller superficial area, and the electric potential of each drop,
and of the whole cloud, rises. When the cloud passes near
another cloud stratum or near a hilltop, tower or tree, a discharge
takes place from the cloud in the form of lightning. The discharge
sometimes takes place from the earth to the cloud, or from a lower
to a higher stratum, and sometimes from conductors silently.
Rain discharges the electricity quietly to earth, and lightning
frequently ceases with rain (see Atmospheric Electricity).
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR, or Lightning Rod (Franklin),
the name usually given to apparatus designed to protect buildings
or ships from the destructive effects of lightning (Fr. paratonnerre,
Ger. Blitzableiter). The upper regions of the atmosphere being
at a different electrical potential from the earth, the thick dense
clouds which are the usual prelude to a thunder storm serve
to conduct the electricity of the upper air down towards the
earth, and an electrical discharge takes place across the air
space when the pressure is sufficient. Lightning discharges
were distinguished by Sir Oliver Lodge into two distinct types—the
A and the B flashes. The A flash is of the simple type which
arises when an electrically charged cloud approaches the earth
without an intermediate cloud intervening. In the second type
B, where another cloud intervenes between the cloud carrying
the primary charge and the earth, the two clouds practically
form a condenser; and when a discharge from the first takes
place into the second the free charge on the earth side of the
lower cloud is suddenly relieved, and the disruptive discharge
