that any effective control of the slave traders was attempted. Baker was succeeded by General C. G. Gordon, who established a separate administration for the Bahr-el-Ghazal. In 1878 Emin Pasha became governor of the Equatorial Province, a term henceforth confined to the region adjoining the main Nile above the Sobat confluence, and the region south of the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. (The whole of the Lado Enclave thus formed part of Emin’s old province.) Emin made his headquarters at Lado, whence he was driven in 1885 by the Mahdists. He then removed to Wadelai, a station farther south, but in 1889 the pasha, to whose aid H. M. Stanley had conducted an expedition from the Congo, evacuated the country and with Stanley made his way to the east coast. While the Mahdists remained in possession at Rejaf, Great Britain in virtue of her position in Uganda claimed the upper Nile region as within the British sphere; a claim admitted by Germany in 1890. In February 1894 the union jack was hoisted at Wadelai, while in May of the same year Great Britain granted to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30′ N., and in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not until 1897, when on the 17th of February Commandant Chaltin inflicted a decisive defeat on the Mahdists at Rejaf, that their occupation of the Lado Enclave was assured. After the withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II. revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in 1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see Africa, § 5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to the Anglo-Sudanese government (see Treaty Series, No. 4, 1906).
See Le Mouvement géographique (Brussels) passim, and especially articles in the 1910 issues.
LADOGA (formerly Nevo), a lake of northern Russia, between
59° 56′ and 61° 46′ N., and 29° 53′ and 32° 50′ E., surrounded
by the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg
in Finland. It has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from
N.W. to S.E. Its eastern and southern shores are flat and
marshy, the north-western craggy and fringed by numerous
small rocky islands, the largest of which are Valamo and Konnevitz,
together having an area of 14 sq. m. Ladoga is 7000 sq. m.
in area, that is, thirty-one times as large as the Lake of Geneva;
but, its depth being less, it contains only nineteen times as much
water as the Swiss lake. The greatest depth, 730 ft., is in a
trough in the north-western part, the average depth not exceeding
250 to 350 ft. The level of Lake Ladoga is 55 ft. above the
Gulf of Finland, but it rises and falls about 7 ft., according to
atmospheric conditions, a phenomenon very similar to the
seiches of the Lake of Geneva being observed in connexion with
this.
The western and eastern shores consist of boulder clay, as well as a narrow strip on the southern shore, south of which runs a ridge of crags of Silurian sandstones. The hills of the north-western shore afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used for buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta mine are exported.
No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the waters of numberless smaller lakes which lie at higher levels round it. The Volkhov, which conveys the waters of Lake Ilmen, is the largest; Lake Onega discharges its waters by the Svir; and the Saima system of lakes of eastern Finland contributes the Vuoxen and Taipale rivers; the Syas brings the waters from the smaller lakes and marshes of the Valdai plateau. Ladoga discharges its surplus water by means of the Neva, which flows from its south-western corner into the Gulf of Finland, rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second.
The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold; in May the surface temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at Valamo being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is only about the end of December that it is frozen in its deeper parts; and it remains ice-bound until the end of March, though broad icefields continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by gales. Only a small part of the Ladoga ice is discharged by the Neva; but it is enough to produce in the middle of June a return of cold in the northern capital. The thickness of the ice does not exceed 3 or 4 ft.; but during the alternations of cold and warm weather, with strong gales, in winter, stacks of ice, 70 and 80 ft. high, are raised on the shores and on the icefields. The water is in continuous rotatory motion, being carried along the western shore from north to south, and along the eastern from south to north. The vegetation on the shores is poor; immense forests, which formerly covered them, are now mostly destroyed. But the fauna of the lake is somewhat rich; a species of seal which inhabits its waters, as well as several species of arctic crustaceans, recall its former connexion with the Arctic Ocean. The sweet water Diatomaceae which are found in great variety in the ooze of the deepest parts of the lake also have an arctic character.
Fishing is very extensively carried on. Navigation, which is practicable for only one hundred and eighty days in the year, is rather difficult owing to fogs and gales, which are often accompanied, even in April and September, with snow-storms. The prevailing winds blow from N.W. and S.W.; N.E. winds cause the water to rise in the south-western part, sometimes 3 to 5 ft. Steamers ply regularly in two directions from St Petersburg—to the monasteries of Konnevitz and Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber, firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and various small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and thence to St Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in 1718–1731, and others in 1861–1886 having an aggregate length of 101 m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at Schlüsselburg the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf of Finland.
The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the towns—Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144); Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol—are small. The monasteries of Valamo, founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every year by many thousands of pilgrims. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
LADY (O. Eng. hlaéfdige, Mid. Eng. láfdi, lāvedi; the first part
of the word is hláf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hláford,
lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-,
to knead, seen also in “dough”; the sense development from
bread-kneader, bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though
not clearly to be traced historically, may be illustrated by that
of “lord”), a term of which the main applications are two,
(1) as the correlative of “lord” (q.v.) in certain of the usages
of that word, (2) as the correlative of “gentleman” (q.v.).
The primary meaning of mistress of a household is, if not obsolete,
in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of the word
as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually “Our Lady,” represents
the Lat. Domina Nostra. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the
word is properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. hlaéfdigan.
As a title of nobility the uses of “lady” are mainly paralleled by
those of “lord.” It is thus a less formal alternative to the full
title giving the specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess
or baroness, whether as the title of the husband’s
rank by right or courtesy, or as the lady’s title in her own right.
In the case of the younger sons of a duke or marquess, who by
courtesy have lord prefixed to their Christian and family name,
the wife is known by the husband’s Christian and family name
with Lady prefixed, e.g. Lady John B.; the daughters of dukes,
marquesses and earls are by courtesy Ladies; here that title
is prefixed to the Christian and family name of the lady, e.g. Lady
Mary B., and this is preserved if the lady marry a commoner,
e.g. Mr and Lady Mary C. “Lady” is also the customary
title of the wife of a baronet or knight; the proper title, now
only used in legal documents or on sepulchral monuments, is
“dame” (q.v.); in the latter case the usage is to prefix Dame
to the Christian name of the wife followed by the surname of the
husband, thus Dame Eleanor B., but in the former, Lady with
the surname of the husband only, Sir A. and Lady B. During
the 15th and 16th centuries “princesses” or daughters of the
blood royal were usually known by their Christian names with
“the Lady” prefixed, e.g. the Lady Elizabeth.
