Catechism of a question and answer bringing out more clearly the spiritual character of the real presence.
The Presbyterian Church.—The Presbyterian churches of Scotland at present possess no liturgy properly so called. Certain general rules for the conduct of divine service are contained in the “Directory for the Public Worship of God” agreed upon by the assembly of divines at Westminster, with the assistance of commissioners from the Church of Scotland, approved and established by an act of the general assembly, and by an act of parliament, both in 1645. In 1554 John Knox had drawn up an order of liturgy closely modelled on the Genevan pattern for the use of the English congregation to which he was then ministering at Frankfort. On his return to Scotland this form of liturgy was adopted by an act of the general assembly in 1560 and became the established form of worship in the Presbyterian church until the year 1645, when the Directory of Public Worship took its place. Herein regulations are laid down for the conduct of public worship, for the reading of Scripture and for extempore prayer before and after the sermon, and in the administration of the sacrament of baptism and the Lord’s Supper, for the solemnization of marriage, visitation of the sick and burial of the dead, for the observance of days of public fasting and public thanksgiving, together with a form of ordination and a directory for family worship. In all these cases, though the general terms of the prayer are frequently indicated, the wording of it is left to the discretion of the minister, with these exceptions: At the act of baptism this formula must be used—“I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost”; and for the Lord’s Supper these forms are suggested, but with liberty to the minister to use “other the like, used by Christ or his apostles upon this occasion”—“According to the holy institution, command, and example of our blessed Saviour, Jesus Christ, I take this bread, and having given thanks, break it, and give it unto you. Take ye, eat ye; this is the body of Christ which is broken for you; do this in remembrance of him.” And again “According to the institution, command and example of our Lord Jesus Christ, I take this cup and give it unto you; this cup is the New Testament in the blood of Christ, which is shed for the remission of the sins of many; drink ye all of it.”
There is also an unvarying form of words directed to be used before the minister by the man to the woman, and by the woman to the man in the case of the solemnization of matrimony. The form of words on all other occasions, including ordination, is left to the discretion of the officiating minister or of the presbytery.
European Protestant Churches. The Calvinistic Churches.—Rather more of the liturgical element in the shape of a set form of words enters into the service of the French and German Calvinistic Protestants. The Sunday morning service as drawn up by Calvin was to open with a portion of Holy Scripture and the recitation of the ten commandments. Afterwards the minister, inviting the people to accompany him, proceeded to a confession of sins and supplication for grace. Then one of the Psalms of David was sung. Then came the sermon, prefaced by an extempore prayer and concluding with the Lord’s Prayer, creed and benediction. The communion service began with an exhortation leading up to the apostles’ creed; then followed a long exhortation, after which the bread and wine were distributed to the people, who advanced in reverence and order, while a Psalm was being sung, or a suitable passage of Scripture was being read. After all had communicated a set form of thanksgiving was said by the minister. Then the Song of Simeon was sung by the congregation, who were then dismissed with the blessing. This form of service has been modified in various ways from time to time, but it remains substantially the type of service in use among the reformed Calvinistic churches of Germany, Switzerland and France.
The Lutheran Church.—Luther was far more conservative than the rest of the Protestant reformers and his conservatism appeared nowhere more than in the service-books which he drew up for the use of the church which bears his name. In 1523 he published a treatise Of the Order of the Service in the Congregation and in 1526 he published the German Mass. Except that the vernacular was substituted for the Latin language, the old framework and order of the Roman missal were closely followed, beginning with the Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie eleison, still always sung in Greek, Gloria in excelsis, &c. The text of this and other Lutheran services is given in Agende für christliche Gemeinden des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses (Nördlingen, 1853). At the same time Luther was tolerant and expressed a hope that different portions of the Lutheran church would from time to time make such changes or adaptations in the order of service as might be found convenient. The Lutheran churches of northern Europe have not been slow to avail themselves of this advice and permission. Most of them have drawn up liturgies for themselves, sometimes following very closely, sometimes differing considerably from the original service composed by Luther himself. In 1822, on the union of the Lutheran and Reformed (Calvinistic) churches of Prussia, a new liturgy was published at Berlin. It is used in its entirety in the chapel royal, but great liberty as to its use was allowed to the parochical clergy, and considerable variations of text appear in the more recent editions of this service-book.
The Church of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians) and the Catholic Apostolic Church (Irvingites) and other Protestant bodies have drawn up liturgies for themselves, but they are hardly of sufficient historical importance to be described at length here.
The Old Catholics, lastly, published a Rituale in 1875 containing the occasional offices for baptism, matrimony, burial, &c., and a form for reception of Holy Communion, in the German language. This latter is for use in the otherwise unaltered service of the mass, corresponding in purpose to the order of Communion in English published the 8th of March 1548 and in use till Whitsunday 1549. (F. E. W.)
LITUUS, the cavalry trumpet of the Romans, said by Macrobius
(Saturn. lib. vi.) to have resembled the crooked staff borne
by the Augurs. The lituus consisted of a cylindrical tube 4 or
5 ft. long, having a narrow bore, and terminating in a conical bell
joint turned up in such a manner as to give the instrument
the outline of the letter “J.” Unlike the buccina, cornu and
tuba, the other military service instruments of the Romans,
the lituus has not been traced during the middle ages, the
medieval instrument most nearly resembling it being the
cromorne or tournebout, which, however, had lateral holes and
was played by means of a reed mouthpiece. A lituus found in
a Roman warrior’s tomb at Cervetri (Etruria) in 1827 is preserved
in the Vatican. Victor Mahillon gives its length as 1 m. 60, and
its scale as in unison with that of the trumpet in G (Catalogue
descriptif, 1896, pp. 29-30).
(K. S.)
LIUDPRAND (Liutprand, Luitprand) (c. 922–972), Italian
historian and author, bishop of Cremona, was born towards the
beginning of the 10th century, of a good Lombard family. In
931 he entered the service of King Hugo of Italy as page; he
afterwards rose to a high position at the court of Hugo’s successor
Berengar, having become chancellor, and having been sent (949)
on an embassy to the Byzantine court. Falling into disgrace
with Berengar on his return, he attached himself to the emperor
Otto I., whom in 961 he accompanied into Italy, and by whom
in 962 he was made bishop of Cremona. He was frequently
employed in missions to the pope, and in 968 to Constantinople
to demand for the younger Otto (afterwards Otto II.) the hand
of Theophano, daughter of the emperor Nicephorus Phocas.
His account of this embassy in the Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana
is perhaps the most graphic and lively piece of
writing which has come down to us from the 10th century. The
detailed description of Constantinople and the Byzantine court
is a document of rare value—though highly coloured by his ill
reception and offended dignity. Whether he returned in 971
with the embassy to bring Theophano or not is uncertain.
Liudprand died in 972.
He wrote (1) Antapodoseos, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, Libri VI, an historical narrative, relating to the events from 887 to 949, compiled with the object of avenging himself upon Berengar and Willa his queen; (2) Historia Ottonis, a work of greater impartiality and merit, unfortunately covering only the years from 960 to 964; and (3) the Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana (968–969). All are to be found in the Monum. Germ. Hist. of Pertz, and in the Rer. Ital. Script. of Muratori; there is an edition by E. Dümmler (1877), and a partial translation into German, with an introduction by W. Wattenbach, is given in the second volume of the Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit (1853). Compare Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter. Three other works, entitled Adversaria, Chronicon, 606–960, and Opusculum de vitis Romanorum pontificum, are usually, but wrongly, assigned to Liudprand. An English translation of the embassy to Constantinople is in Ernest Henderson’s Select Documents of the Middle Ages (Bohn series, 1896). A complete bibliography is in A. Potthast’s Bibl. Hist. Medii Aevi (Berlin, 1896).
LIVE OAK, a city and the county-seat of Suwannee county,
Florida, U.S.A., 81 m. by rail W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890)
687; (1900) 1659; (1905) 7200; (1910) 3450. Live Oak is served
