desirable, or for the precious metals in order to avoid large expenditure of metal. The colossal statues of ivory and gold by Pheidias were the most notable examples of this use of gold, especially his statue of Athena in the Parthenon, and the one of Zeus at Olympia. The nude parts, such as face and hands, were of ivory, while the armour and drapery were of beaten gold. The comparatively small weight of gold used by Pheidias is very remarkable when the great size of the statues is considered.
A graphic representation of the workshop of a Greek sculptor in bronze is given on a fictile vase in the Berlin Museum (see Gerhard’s Trinkschalen, plates xii., xiii.). One man is raking out the fire in a high furnace, while another behind is blowing the bellows. Two others are smoothing the surface of a statue with scraping tools, formed like a strigil. A fourth is beating the arm of an unfinished figure, the head of which lies at the workman’s feet. Perhaps the most important of early Greek works in cast bronze, both from its size and great historical interest, is the bronze pillar (now in the Hippodrome at Constantinople) which was erected to commemorate the victory of the allied Greek states over the Persians at Plataea in 479 B.C. (see Newton’s Travels in the Levant). It is in the form of three serpents twisted together, and before the heads were broken off was at least 20 ft. high. It is cast hollow, all in one piece, and has the names of the allied states engraved on the lower part of the coils. Its size and the beauty of its surface show great technical skill in the founder’s art. On it once stood the gold tripod dedicated to Apollo as a tenth of the spoils. It is described by both Herodotus and Pausanias.
Fig. 3.—Boss from the Milanese Candelabrum.
Marble was comparatively but little used by the earlier Greek sculptors, and even Myron, a rather older man than Pheidias, seems to have executed nearly all his most important statues in metal. Additional richness was given to Greek bronze-work by gold or silver inlay on lips, eyes and borders of the dress; one remarkable statuette in the British Museum has eyes inlaid with diamonds and fret-work inlay in silver on the border of the chiton. The mirrors of the Greeks are among the most important specimens of their artistic metal-work. These are bronze disks, one side polished to serve as a reflector, and the back ornamented with engraved outline drawings, often of great beauty (see Gerhard, Etruskische Spiegel, 1843–1867). In metal-work, as in other arts, the Romans were pupils and imitators of the Greeks. Owing to the growth of the spirit of luxury, a considerable demand arose for magnificent articles of gold and silver plate. The finest specimens of these that still exist are the very beautiful set of silver plate found buried near Hildesheim in 1869, now in the Berlin Museum. They consist of drinking vessels, bowls, vases, ladles and other objects of silver, parcel-gilt, and exquisitely decorated with figures in relief, both cast and repoussé. There are electrotypes of these in the Victoria and Albert Museum. When the seat of the empire was changed, Byzantium became the chief centre for the production of artistic metal-work. From Byzantium the special skill in this art was transmitted in the 9th and 10th centuries to the Rhenish provinces of Germany and to Italy, and thence to the whole of western Europe; in this way the 18th century smith who wrought the Hampton Court iron gates was the heir to the mechanical skill of the ancient metal-workers of Phoenicia and Greece. In that period of extreme degradation into which all the higher arts fell after the destruction of the Roman Empire, though true feeling for beauty and knowledge of the subtleties of the human form remained for centuries almost dormant, yet at Byzantium at least there still survived great technical skill and power in the production of all sorts of metal-work. In the age of Justinian (first half of the 6th century) the great church of St Sophia at Constantinople was adorned with an almost incredible amount of wealth and splendour in the form of screens, altars, candlesticks and other ecclesiastical furniture made of massive gold and silver.
Metal-Work in Italy.—It was therefore to Byzantium that Italy turned for metal-workers, and especially for goldsmiths, when, in the 6th to the 8th centuries, the basilica of St Peter’s in Rome was enriched with masses of gold and silver for decorations and fittings, the gifts of many donors from Belisarius to Leo III., the mere catalogue of which reads like a tale from the Arabian Nights. The gorgeous Pala d’oro, still in St Mark’s at Venice, a gold retable covered with delicate reliefs and enriched with enamels and jewels, was the work of Byzantine artists during the 11th century. This work was in progress for more than a hundred years, and was set in its place in 1106 A.D., though still unfinished (see Bellomo, Pala d’oro di St Marco, 1847). It was, however, especially for the production of bronze doors for churches, ornamented with panels of cast work in high relief, that Italy obtained the services of Byzantine workmen (see Garrucci, Arte cristiana, 1872–1882). One artist, named Staurachios, produced many works of this class, some of which still exist, such as the bronze doors of the cathedral at Amalfi, dated 1066 A.D. Probably by the same artist, though his name was spelled differently, were the bronze doors of San Paolo fuori le Mura, Rome, careful drawings of which exist, though the originals were destroyed in the fire of 1824. Other important examples exist at Ravello (1197), Salerno (1099), Amalfi (1062), Atrani (1087); and doors at Monreale in Sicily and at Trani, signed by an artist named Barisanos (end of the 12th century); the reliefs on these last are remarkable for expression and dignity, in spite of their early rudeness of modelling and ignorance of the human figure. Most of these works in bronze were enriched with fine lines inlaid in silver, and in some cases with a kind of niello or enamel. The technical skill of these Byzantine metal-workers was soon acquired by native Italian artists, who produced many important works in bronze similar in style and execution to those of the Byzantine Greeks. Such, for example, are the bronze doors of San Zenone at Verona (unlike the others, of repoussé not cast work); those of the Duomo of Pisa, cast in 1180 by Bonannus, and of the Duomo of Troia, the last made in the beginning of the 12th century by Oderisius of Benevento. Another artist, named Roger of Amalfi, worked in the same way; and in the year 1219 the brothers Hubertus and Petrus of Piacenza cast the bronze door for one of the side chapels in San Giovanni in Laterano. One of the most important early specimens of metal-work is the gold and silver altar of Sant' Ambrogio in Milan. In character of work and design it resembles the Venice Pala d’Oro, but is still earlier in date, being a gift to the church from Archbishop Angilbert II. in 835 A.D. (see Du Sommerard, and D’Agincourt, Moyen Âge). It is signed wolvinivs magister phaber; nothing is known of the artist, but he probably belonged to the semi-Byzantine school of the Rhine provinces; according to Dr Rock he was an Anglo-Saxon goldsmith. It is a very sumptuous work, the front of the altar being entirely of gold, with repoussé reliefs and cloisonné enamels; the back and ends are of silver, with gold ornaments. On the front are figures of Christ and the twelve apostles; the ends and back have reliefs illustrating the life of St Ambrose.
The most important existing work of art in metal of the 13th century is the great candelabrum now in Milan Cathedral. It is of gilt bronze, more than 14 ft. high; it has seven branches for
