mediator, and put forward the bases of Tacubaya (Sept. 28,
1841), abolishing all the Siete Leyes except the part relating
to the judicial system, arranging for a newSanta Anna Restored, 1841.
constituent assembly, and reserving for the president
(himself) full power of re-organizing the
administration. The Centralist government, after a vain attempt
to defeat him by professing a more thorough Federalism,
gave way to force, and Bustamante was allowed to leave the
country. But the new Congress was too Federalist for Santa
Anna, and he retired, leaving the reins to Nicolas Bravo, under
whom a new Centralist constitution was established (1843).
This expressly retained the privileges of the clergy and army,
and was in some respects more anti-Liberal than that of 1836.
But new complications were now introduced by the question of Texas. Though a state of the Mexican Union, it had been settled from the United States in consequence of a land grant given by the Spanish Viceroy to Stephen Austin in 1820, and had been estranged from Mexico partly by the abolition of slavery under a decree of President The Texas Question. Guerrero, and partly by the prospect of the Centralist constitution of 1836. It then seceded. Santa Anna attempted to reduce it, showing great severity, but was eventually defeated and captured by Houston at the battle of San Jacinto, and compelled to sign a treaty recognizing Texan independence, which was disavowed on his return to Mexico. A state of war thus continued nominally between Mexico and its seceded member, whose independence was recognized by England, France and the United States. The slaveholders in the United States favoured annexation of Texas, and pressed the claims due from Mexico to American citizens, partly perhaps with the aim of forcing war. Most of these claims were settled by a mixed commission, with the king of Prussia as umpire, in 1840–1841, and a forced loan was raised to pay them in 1843, which stimulated the revolt of Paredes against Santa Anna, who had returned to power in 1844. It resulted in Santa Anna’s downfall, imprisonment at Perote and eventual exile (Dec. 1844 to Jan. 1845), and the election of General José Joaquin Herrera as president. But Herrera was displaced in the last days of 1845 by a pronunciamiento in favour of Paredes, who undertook to uphold the national rights against the United States, and who was elected president on the 3rd of January 1846. Texas had meanwhile applied for admission into the American Union. The annexation, rejected in 1844 by the United States Senate, was sanctioned on the 1st of March 1845, and carried out on the 22nd of December 1845. The Mexican minister withdrew from Washington, and both sides made active preparations for war.
The United States forces were ordered by President Polk to
advance to the Rio Grande in January 1846. They established a
depot at Point Ysabel (behind the opening of Brazos
United Santiago), and erected a fort in Texan territory, commanding
Matamoros, on the Mexican side of the Rio
Grande. This provoked the Mexican forces into a
War with the United States,
1846–48.
defensive invasion of Texas, to cut the American communications
with Point Ysabel. They were, however, defeated at Palo Alto
(May 8) and Resaca de la Palma (May 9). There was an outburst
of warlike feeling in the United States (with a counter-movement
in the North), and an invasion of Mexico was planned
by three routes—from Matamoros towards Monterey in New
Leon, from San Antonio de Bexar to Chihuahua, and from Fort
Leavenworth to New Mexico. Importance attaches chiefly to
the movements of the first force under General Zachary Taylor.
During the war preparations President Paredes, suspected of
intriguing to overthrow the Republic and set up a Spanish
prince, had to give place to his vice-president Bravo, who in his
turn gave way before Santa Anna, who was hastily recalled from
his exile at Havana to assume the presidency and the conduct
of the war (Aug. 1846). He was allowed by the American
squadron blockading Vera Cruz to pass in without hindrance.
Probably it was thought his presence would divide the Mexicans.
The preparations of the United States took some months. It was not till the 5th of September 1846 that General Zachary Taylor could leave his depot at Camargo on the Rio Grande, and march on Monterey. It was taken by assault on the 23rd of September; Santa Anna was defeated at Buena Vista (near Saltillo) on the 23rd of February 1847, and forced back on San Luis Potosí. New Mexico was occupied without opposition; Chihuahua was occupied, but not held, owing to the difficulties in maintaining communications; and Upper California was seized in the autumn of 1846 by John C. Fremont, who had been exploring a route across the continent, and by the United States Pacific squadron, and made secure by the aid of the New Mexico expedition. But as Mexico still continued to fight, it was determined to reach the capital via Vera Cruz. That city was taken by General Scott after a siege and bombardment (March 7 to 29, 1847); and after winning the battle of Cerrogordo (April 18), and a long delay at Puebla, Scott marched on Mexico City, stormed its defences against greatly superior forces, and effected an entrance after severe fighting on the 13th of September 1847. This virtually ended the war; Santa Anna was deprived of his command, and the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, concluded on the 2nd of February 1848, ceded to the United States Texas, New Mexico andTreaty of Peace. Upper California, in return for a payment of $15,000,090 by the United States to Mexico, and the assumption of liability by it for the claims of its subjects which it had hitherto been pressing against Mexico. This payment was doubtless intended to strengthen the United States title to the conquered territory. It is generally admitted that Mexico was provoked into aggression in order that additional territory might be available for the extension of slavery.
The American forces were withdrawn in May and June 1848 after the ratification of the treaty by Mexico. Under the presidency of Herrera (1848–1851) attempts were made to Herrera, restore order and the public credit. An arrangement was effected with English holders of Mexican stock; an attempt was made to carry out a consolidation of the internal Herrera, President, 1848–85. debt, which failed; the army was reduced and reorganized, and the northern frontier was defended by military colonies, formed partly of civilized Seminole Indians from the United States. But the financial situation was desperate; the federal revenue, mostly from customs—which were evaded by extensive smuggling—was not half the expenditure; and Indian revolts in Yucatan (1847–1850) and in the Sierra Gorda had added to the strain. Arista succeeded Herrera as president (Jan. 1851), but resigned (Jan. 1853).
After a sort of interregnum (Jan.–March 1853) Santa Anna was recalled (by a vote of the majority of the states under the Plan of Arroyozarco, on the 4th of February 1853, the result of a pronunciamiento), and made dictator in the interests of federation. His measures, partly inspired by an able Conservative leader, Lucas Alaman, proved Santa Anna in Power, 1853–1854. strongly Centralist: one is especially noteworthy, the establishment of the ministry of “fomento,” or encouragement to public works, education, and intellectual and economic development, which is a conspicuous aid to Mexican welfare to-day. He also negotiated (at the end of 1853) the sale of the Mesilla valley (now Arizona) to the United States, but the purchase money. was soon dissipated. On the 16th of December 1853 Santa Anna issued a decree making himself dictator, with the title of serene highness. On the 1st of March 1854, at Ayutla in Guerrero, a section of the army under Colonel Villareal proclaimed the Plan of Ayutla, demanding Santa Anna’s deposition and the establishment of a provisional government to secure a new constitution. Among the leaders in the movement were Generals Alvarez and Comonfort, and it is said that Porfirio Diaz, subsequently president, then a young soldier, made his way to Benito Juarez, then in prison, and arranged with him the preliminaries of the revolt. It spread, and Santa Anna left the country (Aug. 1854).[1]
Two filibustering expeditions at this time—one by William Walker, afterwards notorious in Nicaragua, in Lower California
- ↑ Santa Anna tried to get back to politics in Mexico after Maximilian’s fall, without success. He was amnestied with other exiles in 1874, and died in obscurity in 1876.
