A. Bain, John Stuart Mill, a Personal Criticism (1882); Fox Bourne,
Life of J. S. Mill (1873); John (Viscount) Morley, Miscellanies
(1877), ii. 239-327; J. E. Cairnes, J. S. Mill (1873), on economic
theories; W. L. Courtney, Mataphysics of J. S. Mill (1879) and
Life (1889); Douglas, John Stuart Mill, a Study of his Philosophy
(1895), and Ethics of J. S. Mill (1897); Albee, Hist. of Eng.
Utilitarianism (1902); Sir Leslie Stephen, The English Utilitarians
(1900); J. MacCunn, Six Radical Thinkers (1907); Fred. Harrison,
Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill (1899); John Watson, Comte, Mill and
Spencer (1895); T. Whittaker, Comte and Mill (1905); Charles
Douglas, J. S. Mill, a Study of his Philosophy (1895); J. Rickaby,
Free Will and Four English Philosophers (1906); J. M. Robertson,
Modern Humanists (1891); D. G. Ritchie, Principles of State
Interference (1891); W. Graham, English Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine (1899). There are also a number of valuable French
and German criticisms, e.g. Taine, Positivisme anglais, étude sur
Stuart Mill (Paris, 1864); F. A. Lange, Mills Ansichten über die
soziale Frage (Duisburg, 1866); Littré, A. Comte et Stuart Mill
(3rd ed., Paris, 1877); Cauret, Philosophie de Stuart Mill (Paris,
1885); Gomperz, John S. Mill, ein Nachruf (Vienna, 1889); S.
Sanger, J. S. Mill, sein Leben und Lebenswerk (Stuttgart, 1901);
S. Becher, Erkenntnistheoretische Untersuchungen zu Stuart Mills
Theorie der Kausalität (1906); E. M. Kantzer, La Religion de J. S.
Mill (1906). See also histories of modern philosophy.
See further Logic (Historical Sketch); Psychology; Association of Ideas. (W. M.; J. M. M.)
MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the
late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived “meal;” the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. mühle),
the term given to the apparatus or machinery used in the grinding
of corn into flour, and hence applied to similar mechanical
devices for grinding, crushing to powder, or pulping other
substances, e.g. coffee-mill, powder-mill. “Mill” was first used of the building containing the apparatus, frequently with a word
attached descriptive of the motive power, e.g. wind-mill, water-mill,
&c. It was not the early word used of the actual grinding
mechanism. The old hand-mill was known as a “quern,” a
word which appears in this sense in many Indo-European
languages; the ultimate root is gar-, to grind. “Quern” (see
Flour) is only remotely connected with “churn” (q.v.). The
word is also applied to many mechanical devices by which raw
material is transformed into a condition ready for use or into a
stage preparatory to other processes, e.g. saw-mill, rolling-mill,
&c., or still more widely to buildings containing machinery used
in manufactures, e.g. cotton-mill. In mining it is applied to
various machines used in breaking and crushing the ore (see
Ore-Dressing).
In the engineering industries milling machines constitute a very important class of machine tools, the characteristic of which is that rotary cutters are employed for shaping the metal (see Tools). In coins the “milling” is the serrated edge, called “crenneling” by John Evelyn (Discourse on Medals, 1697, p. 225), which is formed on them to prevent clipping and filing. Coins made by the old process of hammering were apt to have irregular edges which invited mutilation; but the introduction of the screw press, which came to be known as a mill (cf. W. Lowndes, Amendm. Silver Coinage, 1695, p. 93), permitted the production of a regular edge with serrations, which in consequence were termed milling. This machine also enabled legends to be impressed round the edges of coins, such as the Decus et tutamen suggested by Evelyn (see W. J. Hocking, Catalogue of the Coins, &c., in the Museum of the Royal Mint, 1906). It was invented about the middle of the 16th century, and has generally been attributed to Guyot Brucher (d. 1556), who was succeeded at the Paris mint by his brother Antoine. Introduced into England by one Eloye Mestrel in 1561, it was used for twelve years, and was then abandoned owing to the opposition of the mint officials to Mestrel, who was executed for counterfeiting and striking money outside the precincts of the Tower of London; but it was again introduced by one Peter Blondeau in 1662, when it permanently superseded hammering. In the United States of America the term “milling” or “milled” is applied to the raised edge on the face of the coin; this is known in the British mint as “marking” (see Mint).
MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT (1829–1896), English painter, was born at Southampton on the 8th of June 1829, the son of John William Millais, who belonged to an old Norman family settled in Jersey for many generations, and Emily Mary, née Evamy, the widow of a Mr Hodgkinson. After his birth the family returned to Jersey, where the boy soon began to sketch. At the age of eight he drew his maternal grandfather. He went
to school for a short time, but showed no inclination for study, and was afterwards educated entirely by his mother. In 1835 the family removed to Dinan in Brittany, where he sketched the French officers, to their great amusement, and in 1837, on the family’s return to Jersey, he was taught drawing by a Mr Bissel. In 1838 he came to London, and on the strong recommendation
of Sir Martin Archer Shee, P.R.A., his future was decided. He was sent at once to Sass’s school, and entered the Academy schools in 1840. He won a silver medal from the Society of Arts in 1839, and carried off all the prizes at the Royal Academy. He was popular amongst the students, and was called “the
child,” because he wore his boyish costume till long after the usual age. In 1840 and the immediately succeeding years he made the acquaintance of Wordsworth and other interesting and useful people. He was at this time painting small pictures, &c., for a dealer named Thomas, and defraying a great part of the household expenses in Gower Street, where his family lived. In 1846 he exhibited “Pizarro seizing the Inca of Peru” at the Royal Academy, and in 1847 “Elgiva seized by the Soldiers of Odo.” In the latter year he competed unsuccessfully at the exhibition of designs for the decoration of the Houses of Parliament, sending a very large picture of “The Widow’s Mite,” which was afterwards cut up. In the beginning of 1848 he and W. Holman Hunt, dissatisfied with the theory and practice of British art, which had sunk to its lowest and most conventional level, initiated what is known as the Pre-Raphaelite movement, and were joined by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and afterwards by five others, altogether forming the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Rossetti was then engaged, under the technical guidance of Hunt, upon his picture of “The Girlhood of Mary Virgin,” which, with Hunt's “Light of the World” and Millais’s “Christ in the House of His Parents,” forms what has been called the trilogy of Pre-Raphaelite art. According to Millais, the Pre-Raphaelites had but one idea—“to present on canvas what they saw in Nature.” Millais’s first picture on his new principles was a banquet scene from Keats’s “Isabella” (1849), and contains all the characteristics of Pre-Raphaelite work, including minute imitation of nature down to the smallest detail, and the study of all persons and objects directly from the originals. The tale was told with dramatic force, and the expression of the heads was excellent. His next important picture, “Christ in the House of His Parents,” or “The Carpenter’s Shop” (1850), represented a supposed incident in the childhood of our Lord treated in a simply realistic manner, and drew down upon him a storm of abuse from nearly all quarters, religious and artistic. The rest of his more strictly Pre-Raphaelite pictures—“The Return of the Dove to the Ark,” “The Woodman’s Daughter” and the “Mariana” of 1851, “The Huguenot” and “Ophelia” of 1852, “The Proscribed Royalist” and “The Order of Release” of 1853—met with less opposition, and established his reputation with the public. Indeed, this may be said to have been accomplished by the “Huguenot” and “Ophelia,” the refined sentiment and exquisite execution of which appealed to nearly all who were unprejudiced. The public were also greatly influenced by the splendid championship of Ruskin, who, in letters to The Times, and in a pamphlet called “Pre-Raphaelitism,” enthusiastically espoused the cause of the Brotherhood. In 1851 Millais, who had refused to read Modern Painters, where the supposed principles of the Brotherhood were first recommended, became acquainted with Ruskin, and in 1853 went to Scotland with him and Mrs Ruskin, the latter of whom sat for the woman in “The Order of Release.” He made several designs for Ruskin, and painted his portrait. In 1855 Millais exhibited “The Rescue,” a scene from a fire, which drew great attention, from the frantic expression of the mother and the brilliant painting of the glare. In the Paris Exhibition of this year he was represented by “The Order of Release,” “Ophelia” and “The Return of the Dove.” This was also the
