(A) 2. Series-wound Constant-current Motors were early worked to a considerable extent on arc-lights circuits, but have now passed out of use save in a small number of constant-current power-transmission Systems on the continent of Europe. In these motors the motor electromotive force is directly proportional to the output, the torque being constant. They will not start with more than a certain definite load, but once started the speed will increase until added work (internal or external) balances the torque. The type is intrinsically bad in speed regulation, and must be treated by the same methods as are adopted to secure constant current in arc machines. The most successful device in most cases is to vary the field strength by shunting the field coils or to vary the number of effective armature conductors by shifting the brushes. Both methods are carried out mechanically rather than by purely electrical means—in the first case by an automatic rheostat, and in the second by an automatic brush shifter, but neither is wholly satisfactory. Nevertheless, such motors have proved capable of excellent commercial service in some of the European plants, especially in the larger sizes.
(A) 3. Series-wound Constant-potential Motors comprise nearly all motors used for electric traction—aggregating not less, probably, than one and a half million horse-power; hence they are of great practical importance. These traction motors are usually highly specialized machines with very powerful armatures and fields strongly saturated at all working values of the current. The brushes have an invariable position. Such motors behave much like separately-excited motors, having a rather large armature resistance. Speed regulation has to be obtained by varying the applied electromotive force. In early traction motors this variation depended upon inserting a rheostat; in modern practice it is customary to employ two, or even four, identical motors on each car, operated in series for low speeds and in parallel for full speed. In practice, however, resistances are inserted when necessary, to prevent too sudden changes of speed and to secure intermediate steps between those obtained by the series-parallel connexions. In rare instances a still further variation is secured by the use of a field only partially saturated at ordinary loads.
(A) 4. Series-wound Motors with Interdependent Current and Potential are used only in connexion with generators of similar design, motor and generator forming a dynamical unit. This system is occasionally used with good results in power transmission. Assuming the motor field to be saturated, if the speed is to be constant the applied electromotive force must rise with the load to an amount depending on the resistances in circuit. If the corresponding generator has a field less fully saturated, the increase in current demanded by the increment of torque in the motor can be made not only to raise the applied electromotive force enough to compensate for armature resistance, but for the total resistances in circuit, including the line. With this difference in saturation the motor will automatically maintain constant speed. The fields of the machines need not be designed for a given saturation, since shunting them with a suitable resistance will give the same result.
(A) 5. Shunt-wound Motors at Constant Potential are the mainstay of continuous-current distributions for industrial purposes. At constant potential the field remains sensibly constant and the torque is directly proportional to the current. The motor then behaves much like a separately-excited motor, and the armature resistance being generally very small, the speed is very nearly constant, varying less than 5% from no load to full load in the best commercial machines. Operating on a compound-wound generator, a single motor of this type can be made to regulate with great precision, as in the previous case. If the motor field be only moderately saturated, its strength, and hence the motor electromotive force, rises and falls with the applied electromotive force; and therefore at constant load these motors run at very nearly constant speed, in spite of small variations of voltage. If speed variation be required, it can be obtained to a moderate extent by a rheostat in the field circuit. At starting a rheostat is necessary in the armature circuit. The differentially wound modification is now seldom used.
(B) 1. Synchronous Alternating-current Motors.—The simplest starting point in the consideration of this class is the continuous-current generator. This machine actually generates within the armature alternating currents; and if the commutator be replaced by two or more slip-rings connected symmetrically to two or more points on the armature winding, alternating currents, monophase or polyphase, according to the number of connexions and the points touched, can be withdrawn therefrom. The simplest case involves only two slip-rings, joined to the winding at diametrically opposite points. Consider two such modified machines as motor and generator. The condition of complete reversibility is that the instantaneous values of the currents, and the instantaneous values of the angular displacements between poles and armature coils, shall be equal throughout. This evidently requires that the rotation of the motor should be synchronous, pole for pole, with that of the generator. Here, as before, the torque depends on the two fundamental stresses, but the torque has no determinate sign in the absence of an initial rotation. The instantaneous value of the torque depends on the instantaneous value of the current and on its angular displacement. The speed of the motor being invariable, its motor electromotive force depends only on the effective excitation, including the armature reactions, and it may or may not, according to the conditions of load, be in phase with the impressed electromotive force. In the case of the continuous-current motor, the motor output is numerically equal to the product of current and motor electromotive force; and since, in the alternating circuit, these quantities are usually not in phase, in alternating motors the activity is determined by the co-directed part of their product. The current in the alternating motor depends, not on the ohmic resistance alone, but upon the impedance and upon the geometrical difference between the applied and motor electromotive forces. At a given applied electromotive force, and an armature impedance assumed constant, the fundamental variables in the motor are the output, motor electromotive force, and motor current. The two last factors are interdependent, so that the current may have a wide range of values, according to the excitation, while the output remains constant, or, itself remaining constant, may cover a variety of values of the power corresponding to different excitations. These changes involve changes in the phase angle between the motor electromotive force and the current, so that at given output the power-factor of the motor—that is, the ratio between the numerical and geometrical products of current and electromotive force—may be given various values at will by changing the field excitation of the motor, a most unique and valuable property. If the motor electromotive force be fixed and the output varied, the phase angle between current and motor electromotive force varies by reason of the armature taking up a new angular position with respect to the field, backward for increasing load, forward for decreasing load. The minimum value of the current for a given load is reached when the excitation is such that the applied electromotive force and current are in phase, at which point the real and the apparent energy in the circuit coincide. The input can then be accurately measured by voltmeter and ammeter readings, and the motor is working at its best efficiency for the given load. For greater values of the motor electromotive force the current leads in phase with respect to the applied electromotive force; for less values it lags. The former condition is accompanied by the rising of the electromotive force at the motor terminals, the latter by its fall. It therefore becomes possible to use a synchronous motor, if the necessary current due to the load be not too great, as a voltage and phase regulator upon an alternating circuit, a function very valuable in power-transmission work. If the excitation be set to produce leading phase at small loads, the phase angle will gradually diminish as the load rises, and then, passing through zero, increase again with the lagging current, thus holding the power-factor near to unity at all working loads. In a well-designed synchronous motor, by proper initial adjustment of the field, the power-factor can easily be kept between 0·95 and 1 from quarter load to full load, and very close to unity within the ordinary working range. Save for its inability to start independently, the synchronous motor is a highly desirable addition to a transmission system. Starting is generally accomplished by the help of an induction motor or other auxiliary power, and the motor is treated exactly like an alternator, to be thrown in parallel with the supply circuit. A synchronous motor will pull itself up to synchronism if brought near to its synchronous speed, but this requires a very large amount of current. Operating from a generator of its own, it can be brought to speed by giving it a small initial rotation and raising the generator speed very carefully and gradually, when the two machines will accelerate in synchronism. Polyphase synchronous motors obey these same general laws; they can, however, be started as quasi-induction motors with an open field circuit, the pole faces serving as secondary conductors, but require so large currents in thus starting themselves that it is better practice to bring them to speed by extraneous means.
Synchronous motors sometimes cause serious trouble by “pumping,” a phenomenon closely allied to the surging of current between alternators in parallel, and due to similar causes. If not due to defective governing of the prime mover, it usually starts with a change of load or of phase, producing fluctuations in the electromotive force in the system great enough to interfere seriously with incandescent lighting, and continuing with nearly uniform amplitude and frequency for hours if unchecked. The amplitude varies with the conditions, but in the same machine the frequency is nearly constant. The fluctuation affects both the armature and the field circuits, the latter inductively by changes in the armature magnetomotive force, but it can as a rule be controlled by varying the excitation until a neutral point is found, usually when the phase angle is near to zero. Motors with solid pole pieces give little trouble of this sort, the oscillations being rapidly damped by the eddy currents. In motors with laminated fields the most effective remedy is chamfering away the edges of the pole pieces so as to admit heavy copper shoes running along and under the edges, and even bridging the spaces between the pole pieces. The eddy currents in these shoes completely check the “pumping.”
Synchronous and other Converters.—It seems here appropriate to refer to these converting devices, not in their general functions, but merely in so far as they are directly related to motor practice. The synchronous converter proper is in effect a synchronous motor, in spite of its commutating function. Owing to the fact that the direct current voltage is dependent on the alternating current voltage of supply, the converter cannot advantageously be used to control
