(Paris, 1847); J. du Teil, Rome, Naples et le directoire; armistices et traités,
1796–1797 (Paris, 1902); A. Sorel, Bonaparte et Hoche en 1797;
L. Sciout, Le Directoire (3 vols., Paris, 1895); F. A. Aulard, Paris pendant la réaction thermidorienne et sous le directoire
(5 vols., Paris,
1898–1902); Comte A. J. C. J. Boulay de la Meurthe, Le Directoire et l’expédition d’Egypte
(Paris, 1885); E. Driault, La Question d’Orient
(Paris, 1898); D. Lacroix, Bonaparte en Egypte (Paris,
1899); A. Vandal, L’Avènement de Bonaparte (Paris, 1902–1903); *F.
Rocquain, État de France au 18 Brumaire (Paris, 1874); Bonaparte à St Cloud (anonymous) (Paris, 1814).
III. The Consulate and Empire (December 1799–April 1814). (a) Family and personal affairs: *F. Masson, Napoléon chez lui (2 vols., Paris, 1893–), *Napoléon et les femmes (3 vols., Paris, 1893–1902), Napoléon et son fils (Paris, 1904); M. F. A. de Lescure, Napoléon et sa famille (Paris, 1867); *Lettres de Napoléon d Joséphine (Paris, 1895); A. Guillois, Napoléon, l’homme, le politique, l’orateur (2 vols., Paris, 1889); *A. Lévy, Napoléon intime (Paris, 1893); Baron C. F. de Méneval, Napoléon et Marie Louise (3 vols., Paris, 1843–1845); Baron A. du Casse, Les Rois, frères de Napoléon (Paris, 1883); H. Welschinger, Le Divorce de Napoléon (Paris, 1889),
(b) Plots against Napoleon: E. Daudet, Histoire de l’émigration (3 vols., Paris, 1886–1890 and 1904–1905), and La Police et les chouans sous le consulat et l’empire (Paris, 1895); G. de Cadoudal, Georges Cadoudal et la Chouannerie (Paris, 1887); E. Guillon, Les Complots militaires sous le consulat et l’empire (Paris, 1894); *G. A. Thierry, Le Complot des Libelles, 1802 (Paris, 1903); Mémoires historiques sur la catastrophe du duc d’Enghien (Paris, 1824); H. Welschinger, Le duc d’Enghien (Paris, 1888); E. Hamel, Histoire des deux conspirations du Général Malet (Paris, 1873).
(c) Administration, Finance, Education. (For the Code Napoléon see Code.) *J. Pelet de la Lozère, Opinions de Napoléon sur divers sujets de politique et d’administration (Paris, 1833); Damas-Hinard, Napoléon, ses opinions et jugements sur les hommes et sur les choses (2 vols., Paris, 1838); L. Aucoc, Le Conseil d’état avant et depuis 1789 (Paris, 1876); E. Monnet, Histoire de l’administration provincial, departmentale et communale en France (Paris, 1885); F. A. Aulard, Paris sous le Consulat (Paris, 1903, seq.); L. de Lanzac de Laborie, Paris sous Napoléon (Paris, 1905, seq.); A. Edmond-Blanc, Napoléon I., ses institutions civiles et administratives (Paris, 1880); H. Welschinger, La Censure sous le premier Empire (Paris, 1882); C. van Schoor, La Presse sous le consulat et l’empire (Brussels, 1899); M. C. Gaudin (Duc de Gaëte), Notice historique sur les finances de la France, 1800–1814 (Paris, 1818); R. Stourm, Les Finances du consulat (Paris, 1902); J. B. G. Fabry, Le Génie de la révolution considéré dans l’education (3 vols., Paris, 1817–1818); F. Guizot, Essai sur l’histoire et l’état actuel de l’instruction publique (Paris, 1816); C. Schmidt, La Réforme de l’Université impériale en 1811 (Paris, 1905); The memoirs of Chaptal, Méneval, Mollien, Ouvrard and Pasquier deal largely with these subjects. Those of Bourrienne and Fouché are of doubtful authority; the latter are certainly not genuine.
(d) Diplomacy and General Policy: Besides the works named under A, the following may be named as more especially applicable to this section: A. Lefebvre, Histoire des cabinets de l’Europe pendant le consulat et l’empire (3 vols., Paris, 1845–1847); C. Auriol, La France, l’Angleterre, et Napoléon, 1803–1806 (Paris, 1905); B. Bailleu, Preussen und Frankreich von 1795–1807; Diplomatische Correspondenzen (2 vols., Leipzig, 1881–1887); Comte D. de Barral, Étude sur l’histoire diplomatique de l’Europe (2nd part), 1789–1815, vol. i. (Paris, 1885); O. Browning, England and Napoleon in 1803 (London, 1887); H. M. Bowman, Preliminary Stages of the Peace of Amiens (Toronto, 1900); *Coquelle, Napoléon et l’Angleterre, 1803–1815 (Paris, 1904); A. Vandal, Napoléon et Alexandre Iᵉʳ (3 vols., Paris, 1891–1893); W. Oncken, Oesterreich und Preussen im Befreiungskriege (2 vols., Berlin, 1876); H. A. L. Fisher, Napoleonic Statesmanship: Germany (Oxford, 1903); A. Rambaud, La Domination française en Allemagne (2 vols., Paris, 1873–1874); G. Roloff, Die Kolonialpolitik Napoleons I. (Munich, 1899) and Politik und Kriegführung während des Feldzuges von 1814 (Berlin, 1891); A. Fournier, Der Congress von Châtillon (Vienna and Prague, 1900); P. Gruyer, Napoléon, roi de I’Île d’Elbe (Paris, 1906); *H. Houssaye, 1815 (3 vols., Paris, 1898–1905); C. M. Talleyrand (Prince de Benevento), Lettres inédites à Napoléon, 1800–1809 (Paris, 1889).
IV. Closing Years (from the second abdication, June 22nd 1815, to death). Captain F. L. Maitland, Narrative of the Surrender of Bonaparte (London, 1826; new ed., 1904); Sir T. Ussher, Napoleon’s Last Voyages (London, 1895; new ed., 1906); G. Gourgaud, Sainte-Hélène: Journal inédite de 1815 à 1818 (2 vols., Paris, 1899); Marquis C. J. de Montholon, Récits de la captivité de l’empereur Napoléon à Ste Hélène (2 vols., Paris, 1847); Comte E. P. D. de Las Cases, Mémorial de Ste Hélène (4 vols., London and Paris, 1823); Lady Malcolm, A Diary of St Helena (London, 1899); W. Forsyth, History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St Helena (3 vols., London 1853); R. C. Seaton, Napoleon’s Captivity in Relation to Sir Hudson Lowe (London, 1903); Basil Jackson, Notes and Reminiscences of a Staff' Officer (London, 1903); Earl of Rosebery, Napoleon: the Last Phase (1900); J. H. Rose, Napoleonic Studies (London, 1904).
Many of the works relating to Napoleon’s detention at St Helena are perversions of the truth, e.g. O’Meara’s A Voice from St Helena (London, 1822). The works of Las Cases and Montholon should also be read with great caution. The same remark applies to Mrs L. A. Abell’s Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon (London, 1844), W. Warden’s Letters written on Board H.M.S. “Northumberland" (London, 1816) and J. Stokoe’s With Napoleon at St Helena (Eng. ed., London, 1902). Santini’s Appeal to the British Nation (London, 1817) and the Manuscrit venu de Ste Hélène d’une manière inconnue (London, 1817) are forgeries. (J. Hl. R.)
NAPOLEON II., emperor of the French, the style given by
the Bonapartists to the son of Napoleon I., Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles, duke of Reichstadt (q.v.). The fact that in
1814, by Napoleon I.’s abdication in his favour, the king of
Rome (as he was then styled) became for a few days titular
emperor “by the will of the people,” was held by Prince Louis
Napoleon to justify his own assumption of the style of Napoleon III.
which, as seeming to involve a dynastic claim, gave such
offence to the legitimist powers, notably the emperor Nicholas I.
of Russia.
NAPOLEON III.
[Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte]
(1808–1873), emperor of the French, was born on the 20th of
April 1808 in Paris at 8 rue Cerutti (now rue Laffitte), and not
at the Tuileries, as the official historians state. He was the third
son of Louis Bonaparte (see Bonaparte),
brother of Napoleon I.,
and from 1806 to 1810 king of Holland, and of Hortense de
Beauharnais, daughter of General (de) Beauharnais and Josephine
Tascher de la Pagerie, afterwards the empress Josephine; hence
he was at the same time the nephew and the adopted grandson,
of the great emperor. Of the two other sons of Louis Bonaparte
and Hortense, the elder, Napoleon Charles (1802–1807), died
of croup at The Hague; the second, Napoleon Louis (1804–1831),
died in the insurrection of the Romagna, leaving no children.
Doubts have been cast on the legitimacy of Louis Napoleon; for
the discord between Louis Bonaparte, who was ill, restless and
suspicious, and his pretty and capricious wife was so violent
and open as to justify all conjectures. But definite evidence,
in the shape of letters and references in memoirs, enables us
to deny that the Dutch Admiral Verhuell was the father of Louis
Napoleon, and there is strong evidence of resemblance in character
between King Louis and his third son. He early gave signs of a
grave and dreamy character. Many stories have been told about
his childhood, for example the remark which Napoleon I. is said
to have made about him: “Who knows whether the future
of my race may not lie in this child.” It is certain that, after
the abdication and exile of Louis, Hortense lived in France with
her two children, in close relation with the imperial court.
During the Hundred Days, Louis Napoleon, then a child of
seven, witnessed the presentation of the eagles to 50,000 soldiers;
but a few weeks later, before his departure for Rochefort, the
defeated Napoleon embraced him for the last time, and his
mother had to receive Frederick William III. of Prussia and his
two sons at the château of Saint-Leu; here the victor and the
vanquished of Sedan met for the first time, and probably played
together.
After Waterloo, Hortense, suspected by the Bourbons of having arranged the return from Elba, had to go into exile. The ex-king Louis, who now lived at Florence, had compelled her by a scandalous law-suit to give up to him the elder of her two children. With her remaining child she wandered, under the name of duchesse de Saint-Leu, from Geneva to Aix, Carlsruhe and Augsburg. In 1817 she bought the castle of Arenenberg, in the canton of Turgau, on a wooded hill looking over the Lake of Constance. Hortense supervised her son’s education in person, and tried to form his character. His tutor was Philippe Le Bas, son of the well-known member of the Convention and follower of Robespierre, an able man, imbued with the ideas of the Revolution, while Vieillard, who instructed him in the rudiments, was a democratic imperialist also inspired with the ideal of nationalism. The young prince also studied at the gymnasium at Augsburg, where his love of work and his mental qualities were gradually revealed; he was less successful in mathematics than in literary subjects, and he became an adept at physical exercises, such as fencing, riding and swimming. It was at this time that he acquired the slight German accent which he never lost. Those who educated him never lost sight of the future; but it
