external activities of the cells, but do they not at the same time
lower the internal, reparative, assimilative activity of the cell that
in natural sleep goes vigorously forward preparing the system for
the next day’s drain on energy? In most cases they, seem to
Narcotics.
lower both the internal and the external activity of the
nerve cells, to lessen the cell’s entire metabolism, to
reduce the speed of its whole chemical movement and life. Hence
it is not surprising that often the refreshment, the recuperation,
obtained from and felt after sleep induced by a drug amounts to
nothing, or to worse than nothing. But very often refreshment
is undoubtedly obtained from such narcotic sleep. It may be
supposed that in the latter case the effect of the drug has been to
ensure occurrence of that second predisposing factor mentioned
above, of that withdrawal of sense impulses from the nerve centres
that serves to usher in the state of sleep. In certain conditions it
may be well worth while by means of narcotic drugs to close the
portals of the Senses for the sake of thus obtaining stillness in the
chambers of the mind; their enforced quietude may induce a
period in which natural rest and repair continue long after the
initial unnatural arrest of vitality due to the drug itself has passed
away.
Hypnotism.—The physiology of this group of “states” is, as regards the real understanding of their production, eminently vague (see also Hypnotism). The conditions which tend to induce them contain generally, as one element, constrained visual attention prolonged beyond ordinary duration. Symptoms attendant on the hypnotic state are closure of the eyelids by the hypnotizer without subsequent attempt to open them by the hypnotized subject; the pupils, instead of being constricted, as for near vision, dilate, and there sets in a condition superficially resembling sleep. But in natural sleep the action of all parts of the nervous system is subdued, whereas in the hypnotic the reactions of the lower, and some even of the higher, parts are exalted. Moreover, the reactions seem to follow the sense impressions with such fatality, that, as an inference, absence of will-power to control them or suppress them is suggested. This reflex activity with “paralysis of will” is characteristic of the somnambulistic state. The threshold-value of the stimuli adequate for the various senses may be extraordinarily lowered. Print of microscopic size may be read; a watch ticking in another room can be heard. judgment of weight and texture of surface is exalted; thus a card can in a dark room be felt and then re-selected from the re-shuffled pack. Akin to this condition is that in which the power of maintaining muscular effort is increased; the individual may lie stiff with merely head and feet supported on two chairs; the limbs can be held outstretched for hours at a time. This is the cataleptic state, the phase of hypnotism which the phenomena of so-called “animal hypnotism” resemble most. A frog or fowl or guinea-pig held in some unnatural pose, and retained so forcibly for a time, becomes “set” in that pose, or rather in a posture of partial recovery of the normal posture. In this state it remains motionless for various periods. This condition is more than usually readily induced when the cerebral hemispheres have been removed. The decerebrate monkey exhibits “cataleptoid” reflexes. Father A. Kircher’s experimentum mirabile with the fowl and the chalk line succeeds best with the decerebrate hen. The attitude may be described as due to prolonged, not very intense, discharge from reflex centres that regulate posture and are probably intimately connected with the cerebellum. A sudden intense sense stimulus usually suffices to end this tonic discharge. It completes the movement that has already set in but had been checked, as it were, half-way, though tonically maintained. Coincidently with the persistence of the tonic contraction, the higher and volitional centres seem to lie under a spell of inhibition; their action, which would complete or cut short the posture-spasm, rests in abeyance. Suspension of cerebral influence exists even more markedly, of course, when the cerebral hemispheres have been ablated.
But a potent—according to some, the most potent—factor in hypnotism, namely, suggestion, is unrepresented in the production of so-called animal hypnotism. We know that one idea suggests another, and that volitional movements are the outcome of ideation. If we assume that there is a material process at the basis of ideation, we may take the analogy of the concomitance between a spinal reflex movement and a skin sensation. The physical “touch” that initiates the psychical “touch” initiates, through the very same nerve channels, a reflex movement responsive to the physical “touch,” just as the psychical “touch” may be considered also a response to the same physical event. But in the decapitated animal we have good arguments for belief that we get the reflex movement alone as response; the psychical touch drops out. Could we assume that there is in the adult man reflex machinery which is of higher order than the merely spinal, which employs much more complex motor mechanisms than they, and is connected with a much wider range of sense organs; and could we assume that this reflex machinery, although usually associated in its action with memorial and volitional processes, may in certain circumstances be sundered from these latter and unattendant on them—may in fact continue in work when the higher processes are at a standstill—then we might imagine a condition resembling that of the somnambulistic and cataleptic states of hypnotism.
Such assumptions are not wholly unjustified. Actions of great complexity and delicacy of adjustment are daily executed by each of us without what is ordinarily understood as volition, and without more than a mere shred of memory attached thereto. To take one’s watch from the pocket and look at it when from a familiar clock-tower a familiar bell strikes a familiar hour, is an instance of a habitual action initiated by a sense perception outside attentive consciousness. We may suddenly remember dimly afterwards that we have done so, and we quite fail to recall the difference between the watch time and the clock time. In many instances hypnotism seems to establish quickly reactions similar to such as usually result only from long and closely attentive practice. The sleeping mother rests undisturbed by the various noises of the house and street, but wakes at a slight murmur from her child. The ship’s engineer, engaged in conversation with some visitor to the engine-room, talks apparently undisturbed by all the multifold noise and rattle of the machinery, but let the noise alter in some item which, though unnoticeable to the visitor, betokens importance to the trained ear, and his passive attention is in a moment caught. The warders at an asylum have been hypnotized to sleep by the bedside of dangerous patients, and "suggested” to awake the instant the patients attempt to get out of bed, sounds which had no import for them being inhibited by suggestion. Warders in this way worked all day and performed night duty also for months without showing fatigue. This is akin to the “repetition” which, read by the schoolboy last thing overnight, is on waking “known by heart.” Most of us can wake somewhere about a desired although unusually early hour, if overnight we desire much to do so.
Two theories of a physiological nature have been proposed to account for the separation of the complex reactions of these conditions of hypnotism from volition and from memory. R. P. H. Heidenhain’s view is that the cortical centres of the hemisphere are inhibited by peculiar conditions attaching to the initiatory sense stimuli. W. T. Preyer’s view is that the essential condition for initiation is fatigue of the will-power under a prolonged effort of undivided attention.
Hypnotic somnambulism and hypnotic catalepsy are not the only or the most profound changes of nervous condition that hypnosis can induce. The physiological derangement which is the basis of the abeyance of volition may, if hypnotism be profound, pass into more widespread derangement, exhibiting itself as the hypnotic lethargy. This is associated not only with paralysis of will but with profound anaesthesia. Proposals have been made to employ hypnotism as a method of producing anaesthesia for surgical purposes, but there are two grave objections to such employment. In order to produce a sufficient degree of hypnotic lethargy the subject must be made extremely susceptible, and this can only be done by repeated hypnotization. It is necessary to hypnotize patients every day for several weeks before they can be got into a degree of stupor sufficient to allow of the safe execution of a surgical operation. But the state itself, when reached, is at least as dangerous to life as is that produced by inhalation of ether, and it is more difficult to recover from. Moreover, by the processes the subject has gone through he has had those physiological activities upon which his volitional power depends excessively deranged, and not improbably permanently enfeebled. (C. S. S.)
MUSCOVITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica group (see Mica). It is also known as potash-mica, being a potassium, hydrogen and aluminium orthosilicate, H2KAl3(SiO4)3.
