strongly against this development when it was propounded by Fichte, and held that he had precluded it by his “refutation of idealism”: he stood unshakably to the belief in an absolutely real world behind phenomena. Kant’s position may be illogical as he himself stated it; but it is the expression of a sound principle: we must connect it with his general tendency to recognize the dynamic side of things. He saw, what so many of his successors failed to see, that the world as we know it is an expression of power; and he could not imagine whence the power could come if not from a world beyond phenomena. (See Kant; Phenomenon.) (H. St.)
NOVALICHES, MANUEL PAVIA Y LACY, 1st Marquis de
(1814–1896), Spanish marshal, was born at Granada on the
6th of July 1814. He was the son of Colonel Pavia, and after
a few years at the Jesuit school of Valencia he entered the Royal
Artillery Academy at Segovia. In 1833 he became a lieutenant
in the guards of Queen Isabella II., and during the Carlist War
from 1833 to 1840 he became general of division in the latter
year at the early age of twenty-six. The Moderate party made
him war minister in 1847, and sent him to Catalonia, where
his efforts to put down a Carlist rising were not attended with
success. He had been made a senator in 1845, and marquis in
1848. He was sent out to Manila in 1852 as captain-general
of the Philippine Islands. In April 1854 he crushed with much
sternness a formidable insurrection and carried out many
useful reforms. On his return to Spain he married the countess
of Santa Isabel, and commanded the reserves in the Peninsula
during the war with Morocco. He refused the war portfolio
twice offered him by Marshals O'Donnell and Narvaez and
undertook to form a cabinet of Moderates in 1864 that lived
but a few days. He volunteered to crush the insurrection in
Madrid on the 22nd of June 1866, and when the revolution broke
out in September 1868 accepted the command of Queen Isabella’s
troops. He was defeated by Marshal Serrano at the bridge of
Alcolea on the 28th of September 1868, and was so badly Wounded
in the face that he was disfigured for life He kept apart during
the revolution and went to meet King Alfonso when he landed
at Valencia in January 1875. The Restoration made the marquis
de Novaliches a senator, and the new king gave him the Golden
Fleece. He died in Madrid on the 22nd of October 1896.
NOVALIS, the pseudonym of Friedrich Leopold, Freiherr von Hardenberg (1772–1801), German poet and novelist. The name was taken, according to family records, from an ancestral estate. He was born on the 2nd of May 1772 on his father’s estate at Oberwiederstedt in Prussian Saxony. His parents were
members of the Moravian (Herrnhuter) sect, and the strict religious training of his youth is largely reflected in his literary works. From the gymnasium of Eisleben he passed, in 1790, as a student of philosophy, to the university of Jena, where he was befriended
by Schiller. He next studied law at Leipzig, when he formed a friendship with Friedrich Schlegel, and finally at Wittenberg,
where, in 1794, he took his degree. His father’s cousin, the
Prussian minister Hardenberg, now offered him a government
post at Berlin; but the father feared the influence upon his son
of the loose-living statesman, and sent him to learn the practical
duties of his profession under the Kreisamtmann (district
administrator) of Tennstedt near Langensalza. In the following
year he was appointed auditor to the government saltworks
in Weissenfels, of which his father was director. His grief at
the death in 1797 of Sophie von Kühn, to whom he had become
betrothed in Tennstedt, found expression in the beautiful
Hymnen an die Nacht (first published in the Athenäum, 1800).
A few months later he entered the Mining Academy of Freiberg
in Saxony to study geology under Professor Abraham Gottlob
Werner (1750–1817), whom in the fragment Die Lehrlinge zu Sais
he immortalized as the “Meister.” Here he again became
engaged to be married, and the next two years were fruitful in
poetical productions. In the autumn of 1799 he read at Jena
to the admiring circle of young romantic poets his Geistliche Lieder.
Several of these, such as “Wenn alle untreu werden,”
“Wenn ich ihn nur habe,” “Unter tausend frohen Stunden,”
still retain, as church hymns, great popularity. In 1800 he was
appointed Amtshauptmann (local magistrate) in Thuringia, and
was preparing to marry and settle, when pulmonary consumption
rapidly set in, of which he died at Weissenfels on the 25th of
March 1801.
His works were issued in two volumes by his friends Ludwig Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel (2 vols. 1802; a third volume was added in 1846). They are for the most part fragments, of which Heinrich von Ofterdingen, an unfinished romance, is the chief. It was undertaken at the instance of Tieck, and reflects the ideas and tendencies of the older Romantic School, of which Hardenberg was a leading member. Heinrich von Ofterdingen’s search for the mysterious “blue flower” is an allegory of the poet’s life set in a romantic medieval world. Novalis, however, did not succeed in blending his mystic and philosophical conceptions into a harmonious whole. The “fragments” contain idealistic though paradoxical views on philosophy, art, natural science, mathematics, &c.
There are editions of his collected works by C. Meisner and B. Wille (1898), by E. Heilborn (3 vols., 1901), and by J. Minor (3 vols., 1907). Heinrich von Ofterdingen was published separately by J. Schmidt in 1876. Novalis’s Correspondence was edited by J. M. Raich in 1880. See R. Haym, Die romantische Schule (Berlin, 1870); A. Schubart, Novalis’ Leben, Dichten und Denken (1887); C. Busse, Novalis’ Lyrik (1898); J. Bing, Friedrich von Hardenberg (Hamburg, 1899), E. Heilborn, Friedrich von Hardenberg (Berlin, 1901). Carlyle’s fine essay on Novalis (1829) is well known.
NOVARA, a town and episcopal see, of Piedmont, Italy,
capital of the province of Novara, 31 m. by rail W. of Milan,
538 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 37,962 (town), 48,694
(commune). Railways diverge hence to Varallo Sesia, Orta,
Arona (for Domodossola), Busto Arsizio, Milan, Vigevano and
Vercelli. Previous to 1839 Novara was still surrounded by its
old Spanish ramparts, but it is now an open, modern-looking
town. Part of the old citadel is used as a prison. The cathedral
dates from the 4th century (?), but (with the exception of the
octagonal dome-roofed baptistery belonging to the first part
of the 10th century, and separated from the west end by an
atrium) was rebuilt between 1860 and 1870 after designs by
Antonelli; the church of S Gaudenzio, dedicated to Bishop
Gaudentius (d. 417), who is buried under the high altar, rebuilt
by Pellegrino Tibaldi about 1570, has a baroque campanile and
a dome 396 ft. high, the latter added by Antonelli in 1875–1878;
and San Pietro del Rosario is the church in which the papal
anathema was pronounced against the followers of Fra Dolcino.
The two first contain pictures by Gaudenzio Ferrari. The
city also contains handsome market-buildings erected in 1817–1842,
a large hospital dating from the 9th century and a courthouse
constructed in 1346. The town has also a museum of
Roman antiquities. The principal industry is the carding and
spinning of silk; there are also iron-works and foundries, cotton
mills, rice-husking mills, organ factories, dye-works and printing
works.
Novara, the ancient Novaria, according to Pliny a place of Celtic origin, according to Cato (but wrongly) of Ligurian origin, was a municipal city, and lay on the road between Vercellae and Mediolanum. Its rectangular plan may well be a survival of Roman days. Dismantled in 386 by Maximus for siding with his rival Valentinian, it was restored by Theodosius; but it was afterwards ravaged by Radagaisus (405) and Attila (452). A dukedom of Novara was constituted by the Lombards, a countship by Charlemagne. In 1110 the city was taken and burned by the emperor Henry V. Before the close of the 12th century it accepted the protection of Milan, and thus passed into the hands, first, of the Visconti, and, secondly, of the Sforzas. In 1706 the city, which had long before been ceded by Maria Visconti to Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, was occupied by the Savoy troops. At the peace of Utrecht it passed to the house of Austria with the duchy of Milan; but, having been occupied by Charles Emmanuel in 1734, it was granted to him in the following year. Under the French it was the chief town of the department of Agogna. Restored to Savoy in 1814, it was in 1821 the scene of the defeat of the Piedmontese by the Austrians, and in 1849 of the more disastrous battle which led to the abdication of
