(Generaloberst), has come into existence—or rather has been revived[1]—of
late years. Most of the holders of this rank have the honorary
style of general-field-marshal.[2]
(b) General: in Germany and Russia, “general of infantry,” “general of cavalry,” “general of artillery.” In Austria generals of artillery and infantry were known by the historic title of Feldzeugmeister (ordnance-master) up to 1909, but the grade of general of infantry was created in that year, the old title being now restricted to generals of artillery. In France the highest grade of general officer is the “general of division.” In the United States army the grade of full “general” has only been held by Washington, Grant, Sherman and Sheridan.
(c) Lieutenant-general (except in France): in Austria the old title of lieutenant field marshal is retained. In the United States army the title “lieutenant-general,” except within recent years, has been almost as rare as “general.” Winfield Scott was a brevet lieutenant-general. The substantive rank was revived for Grant when he was placed in command of the Union Army in 1864. It was abolished as an American rank in 1907.
(d) Major-general (in France, general of brigade): this is the highest grade normally found in the United States Army, generals and lieutenant-generals being promoted for special service only.[3]
(e) Brigadier-general, in the United States and (as a temporary rank only) in the British services.
The above are the five grades of higher officers. To all intents and purposes, no nation has more than four of these five ranks, while France and the United States, the great republics, have only two. The correspondence between rank and functions cannot be exactly laid down, but in general an officer of the rank of lieutenant-general commands an army corps and a major-general a division. Brigades are commanded by major-generals, brigadier-generals or colonels. Armies are as a rule commanded by field marshals or full generals. In France generals of division command divisions, corps, armies and groups of armies.
The above are classed as general officers. The “field officers” (French officiers supérieurs, German Stabsoffiziere) are as follows:
(a) Colonel.—This rank exists in its primitive significance in every army. It denotes a regimental commander, or an officer of corresponding status on the staff. In Great Britain, with the “linked battalion” system, regiments of infantry do not work as units, and the executive command of battalions, regiments of cavalry and brigades of field artillery is in the hands of lieutenant-colonels. Colonels of British regiments who are quasi-honorary (though no longer proprietary) chiefs are royal personages or general officers. Colonels in active employment as such are either on the staff, commanders of brigades or corresponding units, or otherwise extra-regimentally employed.
(b) Lieutenant-colonel: in Great Britain “the commanding officer” of a unit. Elsewhere, where the regiment and not the battalion is the executive unit, the lieutenant-colonel sometimes acts as second in command, sometimes commands one of the battalions. In Russia all the battalion leaders are lieutenant-colonels.
(c) Major. — This rank does not exist in Russia, and in France is replaced by chef de bataillon or chef d’escadron, colloquially commandant. In the British infantry he preserves some of the characteristics of the ancient “sergeant-major,” as a second in command with certain administrative duties. The junior majors command companies. In the cavalry the majors, other than the second-in-command, command squadrons; in the artillery they command batteries. In armies which have the regiment as the executive unit, majors command battalions (“wings” of cavalry, “groups” of artillery).
Lastly the “company officers” (called in France and Germany subaltern officers) are as follows:—
(a) Captain (Germany and Austria, Hauptmann, cavalry Rittmeister): in the infantry of all countries, the company commander. In Russia there is a lower grade of captain called “staff-captain,” and in Belgium there is the rank of “second-captain.” In all countries except Great Britain captains command squadrons and batteries. Under the captain, with such commands and powers as are delegated to them, are the subalterns, usually graded as—
(b) Lieutenant (first lieutenant in U.S.A., Oberleutnant in Germany and Austria).
(c) Sub-lieutenant (second-lieutenant in Great Britain and U.S.A., Leutnant in Germany and Austria).
(d) Aspirants, or probationary young officers, not of full commissioned status.
The continental officer is on an average considerably older, rank for rank, than the British; but he is neither younger nor older in respect of command. In the huge “universal service” armies of to-day, the regimental officer of France or Germany commands, in war, on an average twice the number of men that are placed under the British officer of equal rank. Thus a German or French major of infantry has about 900 rifles to direct, while a British major may have either half a battalion, 450, or a double company, 220; a German captain commands a company of 250 rifles as against an English captain’s 110 and so on. At the same time it must be remembered that at peace strength the continental battalion and company are maintained at little more than half their war strength, and the under-officering of European armies only makes itself seriously felt on mobilization.
It is different with the questions of pay and promotion, which chiefly affect the life of an army in peace. As to the former (see also Pensions) the Continental officer is paid at a lower rate than the British, as shown by the table of ordinary pay per annum (without special pay or allowances) below:—
| Great Britain. |
France. | Germany. | |
| Lieutenant-colonel † | 328 | 263 | 292 |
| Major † | 248 | 224 | 292 |
| Captain † | 210 | 139 to 200 | 150 to 195 |
| Oberleutnant (Lieutenant) † | 118 | 101 to 120 | 78 |
| Second Lieutenant (Leutnant, Sous-lieutenant) † |
94 | 93 | 45 to 60 |
† Infantry, lowest scale, other arms and branches higher, often considerably higher.
It must be noted that in France and Germany the major is a battalion commander, corresponding to the British lieutenant-colonel. But the significance of this table can only be realized when it is remembered that promotion is rapid in the British army and very slow in the others. The senior Oberleutnants of the German army are men of 37 to 38 years of age; the senior captains 47 to 48. In 1908 the youngest captains were 36, the youngest majors 45 years of age. As another illustration, the captain’s maximum pay in the French army, £10 per annum less than a British captain’s, is only given after 12 years’ service in that rank, i.e. to a man of at least twenty years’ service. The corresponding times for British regular officers in 1905 (when the effects of rapid promotions during the South African War were still felt) were 6 to 712 years from first commission to promotion to captain, and 14 to 19 years from first commission to promotion to major. In 1908, under more normal conditions, the times were 7 to 812 years to captain, 15 to 20 to major. In the Royal Engineers and the Indian army a subaltern is automatically promoted captain on completing 9 years’ commissioned service, and a captain similarly promoted major after 18.
The process of development in the case of naval officers (see Navy) presents many points of similarity, but also considerable differences. For from the first the naval officer could only offer to serve on the king’s ship: he did not build a ship as a colonel raised a regiment, and thus there was no proprietary system. On the other hand the naval officer was even more of a simple office-holder than his comrade ashore. He had no rank apart from that which he held in the economy of the ship, and when the ship went out of commission the officers as well as the crew were disbanded. One feature of the proprietary system, however, appears in the navy organization; there was a marked distinction between the captain and the lieutenant who led the combatants and the master and the master’s mate who sailed the ship. But here there were fewer “vested interests,” and instead of remaining in the condition, so to speak, of distinguished passengers, until finally eliminated by the “levelling up” of the working class of officers, the lieutenants and captains were (in England) required to educate themselves thoroughly in the subjects of the sea officer’s profession. When this process had gone on for two generations, that is, about 1670, the formation of a
- ↑ The 16th-century “colonel-general” was the commander of a whole section of the armed forces. In France there were several colonels-general, each of whom controlled several regiments, or indeed the whole of an “arm.” Their functions were rather those of a war office than those of a troop-leader. If they held high commands in a field army, it was by special appointment ad hoc. Colonels-general were also proprietors in France of one company in each regiment, whose services they accepted.
- ↑ In Russia the rank of marshal has been long in abeyance.
- ↑ In the Confederate service the grades were general for army commanders, lieutenant-general for corps commanders, major-general for divisional commanders and brigadier-general for brigade commanders.
