says he was ensnared and poisoned by Stephania, the widow of Crescentius. The mystic erratic temperament of Otto, alternating between the most magnificent schemes of empire and the lowest depths of self-debasement, was not conducive to the welfare of his dominions, and during his reign the conditions of Germany deteriorated. He was liberal to the papacy, and was greatly influenced by the eminent clerics with whom he eagerly associated.
See Thangmar, Vita Bernwardi episcopi Hildesheimensis in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.); Lettres de Gerbert, edited by J. Havet (Paris, 1889); Die Urkunden Kaisers Ottos III., edited by Th. von Sickel in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Diplomata (Hanover, 1879); R. Wilmans, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Kaiser Otto III. (Berlin, 1837–1840); P. Kehr, Die Urkunden Otto III. (Innsbruck, 1890).
OTTO IV. (c. 1182–1218), Roman emperor, second son of Henry
the Lion, duke of Saxony, and Matilda, daughter of Henry II.,
king of England, was most probably born at Argenton in central
France. His father died when he was still young, and he was
educated at the court of his uncle Richard I., king of England,
under whose leadership he gained valuable experience in war,
being appointed duke of Aquitaine, count of Poitou and earl
of Yorkshire. When the emperor Henry VI. died in September
1197, some of the princes under the leadership of Adolph,
archbishop of Cologne, were anxious to find a rival to Philip,
duke of Swabia, who had been elected German king. After
some delay their choice fell upon Otto, who was chosen king
at Cologne on the 9th of June 1198. Hostilities broke out at
once, and Otto, who drew his main support from his hereditary
possessions in the Rhineland and Saxony, seized Aix-la-Chapelle,
and was crowned there on the 12th of July 1198. The earlier
course of the war was unfavourable to Otto, whose position
was weakened by the death of Richard of England in April
1199; but his cause began to improve when Pope Innocent III.
declared for him and placed his rival under the ban in April
1201. This support was purchased by a capitulation signed
by Otto at Neuss, which ratified the independence and decided
the boundaries of the States of the Church, and was the first
authentic basis for the practical authority of the pope in central
Italy. In 1200 an attack made by Philip on Brunswick was
beaten off, the city of Worms was taken, and subsequently
the aid of Ottakar I., king of Bohemia, was won for Otto. The
papal legate Guido worked energetically on his behalf, several
princes were persuaded to desert Philip and by the end of
1203 his success seemed assured. But after a period of reverses,
Otto was wounded during a fight in July 1206 and compelled
to take refuge in Cologne. Retiring to Denmark, he obtained
military assistance from King Waldemar II., and a visit to England
procured monetary aid from King John, after which he managed
to maintain his position in Brunswick. Preparations were made
to drive him from his last refuge, when he was saved by the
murder of Philip in June 1208. Many of the supporters of Philip
now made overtures to Otto, and an attempt to set up Henry I.
duke of Brabant having failed, Otto submitted to a fresh election
and was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 11th of
November 1208 in the presence of a large gathering of princes.
A general reconciliation followed, which was assisted by the
betrothal of Otto to Philip’s eldest daughter Beatrix, but as
she was only ten years old, the marriage was deferred until the
22nd of July 1212. The pope who had previously recognized
the victorious Philip, hastened to return to the side of Otto;
the capitulation of Neuss was renewed and large concessions
were made to the church.
In August 1209 the king set out for Italy. Meeting with no opposition, he was received at Viterbo by Innocent, but refused the papal demand that he should concede to the church all the territories which, previous to 1197, had been in dispute between the Empire and the Papacy, consenting, however, not to claim supremacy over Sicily. He was crowned emperor at Rome on the 4th of October 1209, a ceremony which was followed by fighting between the Romans and the German soldiers. The pope then requested the emperor to leave Roman territory; but he remained near Rome for some days, demanding satisfaction for the losses suffered by his troops. The breach with Innocent soon widened, and in violation of the treaty made with the pope Otto attempted to recover for the Empire all the property which Innocent had annexed to the Church, and rewarded his supporters with large estates in the disputed territories. Having occupied Tuscany he marched into Apulia, part of the kingdom of Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., and on the 18th of November 1210 was excommunicated by the pope. Regardless of this sentence Otto completed the conquest of southern Italy, but the efforts of Innocent had succeeded in arousing considerable opposition in Germany, where the rebels were also supported by Philip Augustus, king of France. A number of princes assembled at Nuremberg declared Otto deposed, and invited Frederick to fill the vacant throne. Returning to Germany in March 1212, Otto made some headway against his enemies until the arrival of Frederick towards the close of the year. The death of his wife in August 1212 had weakened his hold on the southern duchies, and he was soon confined to the district of the lower Rhine, although supported by money from his uncle King John of England. The final blow to his fortunes came when he was decisively defeated by the French at Bouvines in July 1214. He escaped with difficulty from the fight and took refuge in Cologne. His former supporters hastened to recognize Frederick; and in 1216 he left Cologne for Brunswick, which he had received in 1202 by arrangement with his elder brother Henry. The conquest of Hamburg by the Danes, and the death of John of England, were further blows to his cause. On the 19th of May 1218 he died at the Harzburg after being loosed from the ban by a Cistercian monk, and was buried in the church of St Blasius at Brunswick. He married for his second wife in May 1214 Marie, daughter of Henry I., duke of Brabant, but left no children.
See Regesta imperii V., edited by J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1881); L. von Ranke, Weltgeschichte, Part viii. (Leipzig, 1887–1888); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); O. Abel, Kaiser Otto IV. und König Friedrich II. (Berlin, 1856); E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von Braunschweig (Leipzig, 1873–1828); G. Langerfeldt, Kaiser Otto der Vierte (Hanover, 1872); R. Schwemer, Innocenz III. und die deutsche Kirche während des Thronstreites (Strassburg, 1882); and A. Luchaire, Innocent III., la papauté et l’empire (Paris, 1906); and Innocent III., la question d’Orient (Paris, 1906).
OTTO OF FREISING (c. 1114–1158), German bishop and
chronicler, was the fifth son of Leopold III., margrave of Austria, by his wife Agnes, daughter of the emperor Henry IV. By her first husband, Frederick I. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia,
Agnes was the mother of the German king Conrad III., and
grandmother of the emperor Frederick I.; and Otto was thus
related to the most powerful families in Germany. The notices
of his life are scanty and the dates somewhat uncertain. He
studied in Paris, where he took an especial interest in philosophy,
is said to have been one of the first to introduce the philosophy of Aristotle into Germany, and he served as provost of a new foundation in Austria. Having entered the Cistercian order. Otto became abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Morimond in Burgundy about 1136, and soon afterwards was elected bishop of Freising. This diocese, and indeed the whole of Bavaria, was then disturbed by the feud between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufen,
and the church was in a deplorable condition; but a
great improvement was brought about by the new bishop in
both ecclesiastical and secular matters. In 1147 he took part in the disastrous crusade of Conrad III. The section of the crusading army led by the bishop was decimated, but Otto reached Jerusalem, and returned to Bavaria in 1148 or 1149. He enjoyed the favour of Conrad’s successor, Frederick I.; was probably instrumental in settling the dispute over the duchy of Bavaria in 1156; was present at the famous diet at Besançon in 1157,
and, still retaining the dress of a Cistercian monk, died at
Morimond on the 22nd of September 1158. In 1857 a statue of
the bishop was erected at Freising.
Otto wrote a Chronicon, sometimes called De duabus civitatibus, an historical and philosophical work in eight books, which follows to some extent the lines laid down by Augustine and Orosius.
