almost perpendicular to the direction of the gills, with which
in Anodon they are parallel. In Anodon and the majority of
lamellibranchs the ventricle surrounds the intestine; in the
oyster the two are quite independent, the intestine passing above
the pericardium. The renal organs of the oyster were discovered
by Hoek to agree in their morphological relations with
those of other lamellibranchs.
The generative organs of the oyster consist of a system of branching cavities on each side of the body lying immediately beneath the surface. All the cavities of a side are ultimately in communication with an efferent duct opening on the surface of the body a little above the line of attachment of the gills. The genital opening on each side is situated in a depression of the surface into which the renal organ also opens. The genital products are derived from the cells which line the cavities of the genital organs. The researches of Hoek have shown that in the same oyster the genital organs at one time produce ova, at another spermatozoa, and that consequently the oyster does not fertilize itself. How many times the alternation of sex may take place in a season is not known. It must be borne in mind that in what follows the species of the European coasts, Ostrea edulis, is under consideration. The ova are fertilized in the genital duct, and before their escape have undergone the earliest stages of segmentation. After escaping from the genital aperture they find their way into the infra-branchial part of the mantle cavity of the parent, probably by passing through the suprabranchial chamber to the posterior extremity of the gills, and then being conducted by the inhalent current caused by the cilia of the gills into the infra-branchial chamber. In the latter they accumulate, being held together and fastened to the gills by a white viscid secretion. The mass of ova thus contained in the oyster is spoken of by oyster fishers as “white spat,” and an oyster containing them is said to be “sick.” While in this position the ova go through the earlier stages of development. At the end of a fortnight the white spat has become dark-coloured from the appearance of coloured patches in the developing embryos. The embryos having then reached the condition of “trochospheres” escape from the mantle cavity and swim about freely near the surface of the water among the multitude of other creatures, larval and adult, which swarm there. The larvae are extremely minute, about 1500 in. long and of glassy transparency, except in one or two spots which are dark brown. From the trochosphere stage the free larvae pass into that of “veligers.” How long they remain free is not known; Huxley kept them in a glass vessel in this condition for a week. Ultimately they sink to the bottom and fix themselves to shells, stones or other objects, and rapidly take on the appearance of minute oysters, forming white disks 120 in. in diameter. The appearance of these minute oysters constitutes what the fishermen call a “fall of spat.” The experiment by which Hoek conclusively proved the change of sex in the oyster was as follows. In an oyster containing white spat microscopic examination of the genital organs shows nothing but a few unexpelled ova. An oyster in this condition was kept in an aquarium by itself for a fortnight, and after that period its genital organs were found to contain multitudes of spermatozoa in all stages of development.
The breeding season of the European oyster lasts from May to September. The rate of growth of the young oyster is, roughly speaking, an inch of diameter in a year, but after it has attained a breadth of 3 in. its growth is much slower. Professor Möbius is of opinion that oysters over twenty years of age are rare, and that most of the adult Schleswig oysters are seven to ten years old.
The development of the American oyster, O. virginiana, and of the Portuguese oyster, O. angulata, is very similar to that of O. edulis, except that there is no period of incubation within the mantle cavity of the parent in the case of these two species. Hence it is that so-called artificial fertilization is possible; that is to say, fertilization will take place when ripe eggs and milt are artificially pressed from the oysters and allowed to fall into a vessel of sea-water. But if it is possible to procure a supply of spat from the American oyster by keeping the swarms of larvae in confinement, it ought to be possible in the case of the European oyster. All that would be necessary would be to take a number of mature oysters containing white spat and lay them down in tanks till the larvae escape. This would be merely carrying oyster culture a step farther back, and instead of collecting the newly fixed oysters, to obtain the free larvae in numbers and so insure a fall of spat independently of the uncertainty of natural conditions. This method has been tried several times in England, in Holland and in France, but always without permanent success.
Natural beds of oysters occur on stony and shelly bottoms at depths varying from 3 to 20 fathoms. In nature the beds are liable to variations, and, although Huxley was somewhat sceptical on this point, it seems that they are easily brought into an unproductive condition by over-dredging. Oysters do not flourish in water containing less than 3% salt; and hence they are absent from the Baltic. The chief enemies of oysters are the dog-whelk, Purpura lapillus, and the whelk-tingle, Murex erinaceus, which bore through the shells. Starfishes devour large numbers; they are able to pull the valves of the shell apart and then to digest the body of the oyster by their everted stomach. Cliona, the boring sponge, destroys the shells and so injures the oyster; the boring annelid Leucodore also excavates the shell.
The wandering life of the larvae makes it uncertain whether any of the progeny of a given oyster-bed will settle within its area and so keep up its numbers. It is known from the history of the Lümfjord beds that the larvae may settle 5 m. from their place of birth.
The genus Ostrea has a world-wide distribution, in tropical and temperate seas; seventy species have been distinguished. Its nearest allies are Pinna among living forms, Eligmus among fossils. For the so-called pearl-oyster see Pearl.
Oyster Industry.—Oysters are more valuable than any other single product of the fisheries, and in at least twenty-five countries are an important factor in the food-supply. The approximate value of the world’s oyster crop approaches £4,000,000 annually, representing over 30,000,000 bushels, or nearly 10 billion oysters. Not less than 150,000 persons are engaged in the industry, and the total number dependent thereon is fully half a million. The following table shows in general terms the yearly oyster product of the world:—
| Country. | Bushels. | Value. |
| United States | 26,853,760 | £2,533,481 |
| Canada | 134,140 | 43,405 |
| Great Britain and Ireland | 113,700 | 154,722 |
| France | 3,260,190 | 716,778 |
| Holland | 100,000 | 84,400 |
| Italy | 68,750 | 44,000 |
| Other European countries | 29,030 | 40,250 |
| Asia, Africa and Oceania | 275,000 | 111,400 |
| Total | 30,835,470 | £3,728,436 |
United States.—The oyster is the chief fishery product in the United States. The states which lead in the quantity of oysters taken are Maryland, Virginia, New York, New Jersey and Connecticut; the annual value of the output in each of these is over $1,000,000. Other states with important oyster interests are Rhode Island, North Carolina, Louisiana and California. The oyster fisheries give employment to over 56,000 fishermen, who man 4000 vessels, valued at $4,000,000, and 23,000 boats, valued at $1,470,000; the value of the 11,000 dredges and 37,000 tongs, rakes and other appliances used is $365,000. The quantity of oysters taken in 1898 was 26,853,760 bushels, with a value of $12,667,405. The output of cultivated oysters in 1899 was about 9,800,000 bushels, worth $8,700,000.
Canada.—Oyster banks of some importance exist in the Gulf of St Lawrence and on the coast of British Columbia. All of the grounds have suffered depletion, and cultural methods to maintain the supply have been instituted. The oyster output of the Dominion has never exceeded 200,000 bushels in a single year, and in 1898 was 134,140 bushels, valued at $217,024.
United Kingdom.—The natural oyster beds of Great Britain and Ireland have been among the most valuable of the fishery resources, and British oysters have been famous from time immemorial. The most important oyster region is the Thames estuary, the site of extensive planting operations. The present supply is largely from cultivated grounds. Important oyster-producing centres are
