chequered by weariness and sorrow. In 1825 he retired to Neuhof, the home of his youth; and after writing the adventures of his life, and his last work, the Swan’s Song, he died at Brugg on the 17th of February 1827. As he said himself, the real work of his life did not lie in Burgdorf or in Yverdun. It lay in the principles of education which he practised, the development of his observation, the training of the whole man, the sympathetic application of the teacher to the taught, of which he left an example in his six months' labours at Stanz. He had the deepest effect on all branches of education, and his influence is far from being exhausted.
Pestalozzi’s complete works were published at Stuttgart in 1819–1826, and an edition by Seyffarth appeared at Berlin in 1881. Volumes on his life and teaching have been written by De Guimps (1889), Barnard (1862), Krüsi (1875) and Pinloche (1901).
PETALITE, a mineral species consisting of lithium aluminium
silicate, LiAl(Si2O5)2. The monoclinic crystals approach spodumene
(q.v.) in form, which is also a lithium aluminium silicate
with the formula LiAl(SiO3)2. There is a perfect cleavage parallel
to the basal plane, and the mineral usually occurs in platy
cleavage masses; on this account it was named, from Gr. πέταλον
(a leaf). The hardness is 612 and the specific gravity 2·4 (that
of spodumene being 3·16). The mineral is colourless or occasionally
reddish, varies from transparent to translucent, and has
a vitreous lustre. It was discovered in 1800 as cleavage masses
in an iron mine on the island of Utö in the Stockholm
archipelago, where it is associated with lepidolite, tourmaline
(rubellite and indicolite) and spodumene. A variety known as
“castor” is found as transparent glassy crystals associated with
pollux (q.v.) in cavities in the granite of Elba. (L. J. S.)
PETARD (Fr. pétard, péter, to make a slight explosion), a
device formerly used by military engineers for blowing in a
gate or other barrier. It consisted of a small metal or wooden
case, usually of sugar-loaf shape, containing a charge of powder
and fired by a fuse.
PETAU, DENYS (1583–1652), Jesuit scholar, better known as Dionysius Petavius, was born at Orleans on the 21st of August 1583. Educated at Paris University, he came under the influence of Isaac Scaliger, who directed his attention towards the obscurer fathers of the Church. In 1603 he was appointed
to a lectureship at the university of Bourges, but resigned his place two years later, in order to enter the Society of Jesus. For many years he was professor of divinity at the Collège de Clermont, the chief Jesuit establishment in Paris; there he died on the 11th of December 1652. He was one of the most brilliant scholars in a learned age. Carrying on and improving the chronological labours of Scaliger, he published in 1627 an Opus de doctrina temporum, which has been often reprinted. An abridgment of this work, Rationarium temporum, was translated into French and English, and has been brought down in a modern reprint to the year 1849. But Petau’s eminence chiefly rests on his vast, but unfinished, De theologicis dogmatibus, the
first systematic attempt ever made to treat the development
of Christian doctrine from the historical point of view.
PETCHENEGS, or Patzinaks, a barbarous people, probably of Turkish race, who at the end of the 9th century were driven into Europe from the lower Ural, and for about 300 years wandered about the northern frontier of the East Roman Empire. (See Turks).
PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. πέτρος, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr), a masculine name, derived from the famous surname bestowed by Christ upon his apostle Simon (“Thou art Peter and upon this
rock will I build my church,” Matt. xiv. 17–19). The name has consequently been very popular in Christian countries. It is noteworthy, however, that, out of deference to the “prince of the apostles” and first bishop of Rome, the name has never been
assumed by a pope The biographies which follow are arranged
in the order (1) the apostle, (2) kings; (3) other eminent men.
PETER, ST, the chief of the Twelve Apostles. He is known also by other names (a) “Simon” (Σίμων) in Mark four times and Luke seven times. This use is only found in narrative before the story of the mission of the apostles it is also found in speeches; Matthew once, Mark once and Luke twice (b) “Simon who is called Peter” is found in Matthew twice and Acts four times. (c) “Simon Peter” is found in Matthew once, Luke once, John seventeen times (and perhaps also in 2 Peter i. 1,
where the text varies between Simon and Symeon. (d) “Peter” is found in Matthew nineteen times, Mark eighteen times, Luke sixteen times, Acts fifty-one times, John fifteen times, Galatians twice, 1 Peter once (e) “Cephas” is found in John once, Galatians four times, 1 Corinthians four times. (f) Symeon (Συμεών) is found in Acts once. It appears that the apostle had two names, each existing in a double form—Greek and Hebrew, Symeon (שמעח) which was Graecized according to the sound into Simon, and Cephas (כיפ֛א) which was Graecized according to the meaning into Peter (Πέτρος). Symeon
and Simon are both well-known names in Aramaic and Greek
respectively, but Cephas and Peter are previously unknown.
Symeon was no doubt his original Aramaic name, and the
earliest gospel, Mark, which has some claim specially to
reproduce Petrine tradition, is careful to employ Simon until
after the name Peter had been given, and not then to use it
again. The Gospels agree in regarding Cephas or Peter as an
additional name, which was given by Christ. But they differ as
to the occasion. According to Mark iii. 13 sqq. it was given on
the occasion of the mission of the Twelve. According to
John i. 42 it was given at his first call. According to
Matt. xvi. 13 sqq. it was given after the recognition of Jesus as
Messiah at Caesarea Philippi. This last account is the only
one which describes any circumstances (for a further discussion
see § 3 (2) below).
According to the Gospels Peter was the son of John (Ἰωάνας, John i 42, xxi. 15 seq.) or Jonas (Ἰωνᾶς, Matt. xxvi. 17). According to Mark i. 29 he was a fisherman of Capernaum, but John i. 44 describes him and his brother Andrew as of Bethsaida. From Mark i. 30 he is seen to have been married, and 1 Cor. ix. 5 suggests (but another interpretation is possible) that his wife went with him on his missionary journeys. In 1 Pet. v. 13 Mark is referred to as his son, but this is usually interpreted of spiritual kinship. According to legend (Acta Nerei et Achillei, and Acta Philippi) he had a daughter Petronilla, but there is no reason for thinking that this is historical.
The Gospel narratives are unanimous in describing Peter as one of the first disciples of Christ, and from the time of his call he seems to have been present at most of the chief incidents in the narrative. He formed together with the sons of Zebedee to some extent an inner circle within the Twelve, and this favoured group History in the Gospels up
to the Resurrection.is specially mentioned as present on three occasions—the raising of the daughter of Jairus (Mark
v. 22–43; Matt. ix. 18–36; Luke viii. 41–56), the transfiguration (Mark
ix. 2 sqq.; Matt. xv1i. 1 sqq.; Luke ix. 28 sqq.) and the scene
in the Garden at Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 32 sqq.; Matt. xxvi.
36 sqq.). He is also specially mentioned in connexion with
his call (Mark i. 16–20; Matt. iv. 18 sqq.; Luke v. 1 sqq.;
John i. 40 sqq.); the healing of his wife’s mother (Mark i. 21
sqq.; Matt. viii. 14 sqq.; Luke iv. 38 sqq.); the mission of
the Twelve Apostles (Mark iii. 13 sqq.; Matt. x. 1 sqq.; Luke vi.
12 sqq.); the storm on the Lake of Galilee (Mark vi. 45 sqq.;
Matt. xiv. 22 sqq.; John vi. 16 sqq.); the Messianic recognition
at Caesarea Philippi (Mark vii. 27 sqq.; Matt. xvi. 16 sqq.;
Luke ix. 18 sqq.); the incident of the payment of tribute by
the coin found in the fish caught by Peter (Matt. xvii 25 sqq.)
and with various questions leading to parables or their explanations
(Mark xiii. 36 sqq.; Luke xii. 41; Matt. xviii. 21 sqq.;
Mark x. 28; Matt. xix. 27; Luke xviii. 28). In the week of
the Passion he appears in connexion with the incident of the
withered fig-tree (Mark xi. 21; Matt. xxi. 20); as introducing
the eschatological discourse (Mark xiii. 3 sqq.); and as prominent
during the Last Supper (Luke xxii 8 sqq.; John
xiii. 4 sqq.; Mark xiv. 27 sqq.; Matt. xxvi. 31 sqq.). He
