may be specially mentioned. Writers on the history of philosophy generally prefix to their work a discussion of the scope of philosophy, its divisions and its relations to other departments of knowledge, and the account given by Windelband and Ueberweg will be found specially good. The Introductions to Philosophy published by F. Paulsen, O. Kulpe, W. Wundt and G. T. Ladd, deal largely with this subject, which is also treated by Henry Sidgwick in his Philosophy, its Scope and Relations (1902), by Ernest Naville, La Définition de la philosophie (1894) and by Wundt in the introduction to his System der Philosophie (1889). A useful work of general reference is J. M. Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (3 vols., 1902–1905). (A. S. P.-P.)
PHILOSTRATUS, the name of several, three (or four), Greek sophists of the Roman imperial period—(1) Philostratus "the Athenian" (c. 170–245), (2) his nephew (?) Philostratus "of Lemnos" (born c. 190); (3) a grandson (?) of (2). Of these the most famous is Philostratus "the Athenian," author of the Life of Apollonius Tyana, which he dedicated to Julia Domna, wife of Alexander Severus and mother of Caracalla (see Apollonius of Tyana)[1]. He wrote also Βίοι Σοφισῶν (Lives of the Sophists), Gymnasticus and Epistolae (mainly of an erotic character). Very little is known of his career. Even his name is doubtful. The Lives of the Sophists gives the praenomen Flavius, which, however, is found elsewhere only in Tzetzes. Eunapius and Synesius call him a Lemnian; Photius a Tyrian; his letters refer to him as an Athenian. It is probable that he was born in Lemnos, studied and taught at Athens, and then settled in Rome (where he would naturally be called atheniensis) as a member of the learned circle with which Julia Domna surrounded herself. He was born probably in 172, and is said by Suïdas to have been living in the reign of Philip (244–249). The fact that the author of Apollonius is also the author of the Lives of the Sophists is confirmed by internal evidence. The latter is dedicated to a consul Antonius Gordianus, perhaps one of the two Gordians who were killed in 238. The work is divided into two parts: the first dealing with the ancient Sophists, e.g. Gorgias, the second with the later school, e.g. Herodes Atticus.
The Lives are not in the true sense biographical, but rather picturesque impressions of leading representatives of an attitude of mind full of curiosity, alert and versatile, but lacking scientific method, preferring the external excellence of style and manner to the solid achievements of serious writing. The philosopher, as he says, investigates truth; the sophist embellishes it, and takes it for granted. The Gymnasticus contains interesting matter concerning the Olympic games and athletic contests generally. The Letters breathe the spirit of the New Comedy and the Alexandrine poets; portions of Letter 33 are almost literally translated in Ben Jonson's Song to Celia, "Drink to me only with thine eyes." The Ἡρωικός, formerly attributed to Philostratus the Athenian, is probably the work of Philostratus the Lemnian. It is a popular disquisition on the heroes of the Trojan War in the form of a conversation between a Thracian vine-dresser on the shore of the Hellespont and a Phoenician merchant who derives his knowledge from the hero Protesilaus, Palamedes is exalted at the expense of Odysseus, and Homer's unfairness to him is attacked. It has been suggested that Philostratus is here describing a series of heroic paintings in the palace of Julia Domna. His other work is the Εἰκόνες (Imagines), ostensibly a description of 64 pictures in a Neapolitan gallery. Goethe, Welcker, Brunn, E. Bertrand and Helbig, among others, have held that the descriptions are of actually existing works of art, while Heyne and Friederichs deny this. In any case they are interesting as showing the way in which ancient artists treated mythological and other subjects, and are written with artistic knowledge and in attractive language. This work is imitated by the third Philostratus (or by some later sophist) of whose descriptions of pictures 17 remain.
There is great difficulty, due to a confused statement of Suïdas, in disentangling the works and even the personalities of these Philostrati. Reference is there made to Philostratus as the son of Verus, a rhetorician in Nero's time, who wrote tragedies, comedies and treatises. Suïdas thus appears to give to Philostratus the Athenian a life of 200 years! We must be content to assume two Lemnian Philostrati, both sophists, living in Rome. See further a full discussion by K. Münscher, in Philologus (1907), suppl. x., pp. 469-557.
Of works bearing the name Philostratus there is a collected edition by C. F. Kayser (Zurich, 1844; Leipzig, 1870–1871), and another by Westermann (Paris, 1849), with Latin translation; these supersede those by F. Morel (Paris, 1608) and Olearius (Leipzig, 1709). There are separate editions of the Eikones by Schenkl and Reisch (Leipzig, 1902); of the Gymnasticus by Mynas (1858), who discovered the MS., Daremberg (Paris, 1858), Volckmar (Aurich, 1862), and especially Julius Juthner (1909), with introd., comments and Ger. trans.; of 73 epistles by Boissonade (Paris, 1842). The Life of Apollonius was first published by Aldus (1502); a French translation by Blaise de Vigenere appeared in 1596; an English translation of the first two books was published in London (1680) by Charles Blount, with some notes by Lord Herbert of Cherbury (prohibited in England in 1693, it was reprinted on the Continent); a full translation appeared in 1903. Critical works on the Eikones are numerous: K. Friederichs, Die Philostratischen Bilder (1860); Goethe, "Philostrats Gemalde" in Complete Works (ed. Stuttgart, 1879); Brunn, Die Philostratischen Bilder (1860); A. Bougot, Une Galerie antique (1881); E. Bertrand, Un Critique d'art dans l'antiquité: Philostrate et son école (1882); Bergk, "Die Philostrate" in Funf Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie und Astronomie (1883); Schmid, Atticismus iv. 7, on the attribution of the works.
PHILOXENUS, of Cythera (435–380 B.C.), Greek dithyrambic poet. On the conquest of the island by the Athenians he was taken as a prisoner of war to Athens, where he came into the possession of the dithyrambic poet Melanippides, who educated him and set him free. Philoxenus afterwards resided in Sicily, at the court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, whose bad verses he declined to praise, and was in consequence sent to work in the quarries. After leaving Sicily he travelled in Greece, Italy and Asia, reciting his poems, and died at Ephesus. According to Suïdas, Philoxenus composed twenty-four dithyrambs and a lyric poem on the genealogy of the Aeacidae. In his hands the dithyramb seems to have been a sort of comic opera, and the music, composed by himself, of a debased character. His masterpiece was the Cyclops, a pastoral burlesque on the love of the Cyclops for the fair Galatea, written to avenge himself upon Dionysius, who was wholly or partially blind of one eye. It was parodied by Aristophanes in the Plutus (290). Another work of Philoxenus (sometimes attributed to Philoxenus of Leucas, a notorious parasite and glutton) is the Δεῖπνον (Dinner), of which considerable fragments have been preserved by Athenaeus. This is an elaborate bill of fare in verse, probably intended as a satire on the luxury of the Sicilian court. The great popularity of Philoxenus is attested by a complimentary
resolution passed by the Athenian senate in 393. The comic poet Antiphanes spoke of him as a god among men; Alexander the Great had his poems sent to him in Asia; the Alexandrian grammarians received him into the canon; and down to the time of Polybius his works were regularly learned and annually acted by the Arcadian youth.
Fragments, with life, by G. Bippart (1843); T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci.
PHILOXENUS (Syriac, Aksēnāyā), of Mabbōg, one of the best of Syriac prose writers, and a vehement champion of Monophysite doctrine in the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th centuries. He was born, probably in the third quarter of the 5th century, at Tahal, a village in the district of Béth Garmai east of the Tigris. He was thus by birth a subject of Persia, but all his active life of which we have any record was passed in the territory of the Greek Empire. The statements that he had been a slave and was never baptized appear to be malicious inventions of his theological opponents. He was educated at Edessa[2], perhaps in the famous "school of the Persians," which was afterwards (in 489) expelled from Edessa on account of its connexion with the Nestorian heresy. The years which followed the Council of Chalcedon (451) were a stormy period in the Syrian Church. Philoxenus soon attracted notice by his strenuous advocacy of Monophysite doctrine, and on the expulsion of Calandio (the orthodox patriarch of Antioch) in 485 was ordained bishop of Mabbōg[3] by his Monophysite successor Peter the Fuller (Barhebraeus, Chron. eccl. i. 183). It was probably during the earlier years of his episcopate that Philoxenus composed his thirteen homilies on the Christian life. Later he devoted himself to the revision of the Syriac version of the Bible, and with the help of his chorepiscopus Polycarp produced in 508 the so-called Philoxenian version, which was in some sense the received Bible of the Monophysites during the 6th century. Meantime he continued his ecclesiastical activity, working as a bitter opponent of
