to suppress pirates in the Eastern seas, brought deserved discredit upon them. The decision taken on the advice of Burchett, the secretary of the admiralty, to offer a pardon to all who would surrender by a given date—for all piracies committed before the 30th of April to the east of the Cape of Good Hope, and the 30th of June 1699 to the west—was an error. It induced many to come in, but it also gave all pirates the hope that they would in the future be provided with similar means of escape. The establishment of admiralty courts in the East Indies and America and the despatch of warships were more effectual methods. Yet it was long before piracy was thoroughly checked, indeed the signing of the Peace of Utrecht was followed by a recrudescence of this form of crime. The privateers who swarmed in the West Indies and, as long as the war lasted, used, in the phrase of the time, to join the squadrons of war-ships “ on the plundering account,” could not settle down to dull industry. They leagued themselves into a species of pirate republic, with its capital at Providence in the Bahamas. In 1718 a special force had to be sent against them under Woodes Rogers, who is best remembered now for having taken Alexander Selkirk from the island of Juan Fernandez, in the course of a privateering voyage into the Pacific with the “ duke ” and “ duchess ” of Bristol. Rogers broke up the Providence settlement, and did a similar piece of service on the coast of Madagascar. Piracy did not, however, die. The Asiento (q.v.) Treaty having given Great Britain a monopoly of the slave trade with Spanish America, the monopolists, e the South Sea Company and Royal African Company, were of course subject to the competition of interlopers. The interlopers were the natural friends of the pirates, who divided their activity between the Antilles and the west coast of Africa, plundering in the second, selling and re-fitting, not without further plunder, in the first. The most notorious of these freebooters was Bartholomew Roberts, who was introduced to piracy by Howel Davis. Roberts was the nearest known approach to the pirate of romance, ostentatious, brave, not without touches of generosity. He was killed in action with Captain Chaloner Ogle, of H.M.S. “ Swallow,” on the coast of Africa, in 1722.
As the American colonies grew more settled piracy became intolerable to them. Yet it lingered on the coast of North Carolina, where the pirates could either terrorize the scattered inhabitants, or were encouraged by dishonest officials. Here flourished the grotesque brute known as Blackbeard, Edward Teach, till he was run down and slain by Lieut. Milvain in 1718. It was noted that several of those who helped to suppress him afterwards “ went a-pirating ” themselves. So strong was the piratical tradition of the New World that even men of some standing fell into it. “ Major ” or Captain Stede Bonnet, who was condemned and executed at Charleston, South Carolina, as a pirate, in 1718, was a gentleman of some property in Barbadoes, who first ventured to sea in a ship of his own. Stede Bonnet had taken advantage of an act of grace, had come in on a proclamation, and had returned to a pirate's life. The last great explosion of piracy in the West Indies followed the peace of 1815. Here again we find the old conditions—privateers and other unsettled men, the safe lurking-place and the receiver. The refuge and the market were supplied by the Spanish colonies, which were plunged into anarchy by their revolt against Spain. The pirates were able to masquerade as “ patriot ” navies. The sloth and corruption of Spanish captains-general of Cuba were no less favourable to the pirates. The south coast of of the island became a haunt of these villains till the British and American governments were driven to combine for their suppression. When they had been followed into their hiding-places and their vessels sunk, they took to brigandage on land, and were garrotted by the Spanish authorities in self-defence. The piracy of the Greek islands went on to later years, and the Malays were not tamed till nearly 1850. On the coast and the rivers of China piracy was and is endemic, but the sailing junk has no chance with the modern steamer. When cases of piracy have occurred in the Straits of Malacca or in the China seas, by which Europeans have been the sufferers, the crime has generally been perpetrated by men who shipped as passengers or as crew, and who surprised the vessel. The pirate has been as useful to the author of modern tales and poems as to the writers of the Greek romances. When he is seen in authentic evidence he is found to have been for the most part a pitiful rogue. His gains were but small. A share of £200 was wealth to a mere sailor, and one of £1000 wealth beyond the dreams of avarice. He rarely fought a warship if he could help it, and indeed nothing is more surprising than his readiness to surrender when the fate before him was the gallows.
Authorities.—The pirates of the ancient world are admirably dealt with in Mommsen's History of Rome. For the modern pirate, see Monson's “ Naval Tracts " in Churchill's Voyages, v. 5 (London, 1744–1746), and in the edition of the Navy Record Societv (1902). But the best accounts are to be found in the State Trials, vols. xiii, xiv., xv. (London, 1812). Captain Charles Johnson's General History of the Pyrates (London, 1724) must be used with caution. He no doubt learnt much from pirates who, having come in on a proclamation, were free to talk, but he cannot always be reconciled with authentic records. The Documents relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York (Albany, 1856–1858) contain many curious details. For the eastern seas, the Compendious History of the Indian Wars; with an account of the Rise, Progress, Strength and Forces of Angria, the Pyrate, &c, by Clement Downing (London, 1737) is useful. (D. H.)
PIRKE ABOTH. The penultimate tract of the fourth part of the Mishnah is the booklet of proverbs in nve chapters called Massecheth Aboth (tractatus patrurn), better known with a sixth chapter as Pzrke Aboth (capitula patrum). For Pirke Aboth in English see The Authorized Daily Prayer Book of the united Hebrew congregations of the British Empire, with a new
translation by the Rev. S. Singer. The six chapters are there appointed to be read one on each Sabbath afternoon between Passover and New Year. Formerly they were read, in places at least, on the six Sabbaths between Passover and Pentecost only. The subsections of the chapters are hereinafter numbered
as in the Authorized Prayer Book.
Chapters i., ii.-The Mosaic succession has first to be established. Moses (i., 1-3) having received the Torah from Sinai, it was handed down to Joshua, the Elders (josh. xxiv. 91), the Prophets and the men of the Great Synagogue, from one o the iast of whom, Simon Justus, it was received by Antigonus of Socho. Next are named (i 4-15). without any title, as links in the chain of tradition, five pairs of teachers, the last Hillel and Shammai, elsewhere in the Mishnah called mundi patres (Surenh iv. 324). Rabban Jochanan ben Zacchai (li. 9) “ received from Hillel and Shammai.” Sayings of Jochanan and his five disciples follow, and chap. ii. ends with words of their somewhat younger contemporary, Rabbi Tarphon (Tpwwv), to the effect Ars tonga 'vita brews. These sections (i. 1-15, i1 9-21) contain the “ Kern der Sammlung ” (Strack). After the sayings of Shammal (i. 15) come interpolated sayings (i. 16-li. 8) of Rabban Gamaliel I., Rabban Simeon, “ Rabbi, " i.e. R. jehudah ha-Nasi (cent. A.D. I-2), the traditional redactor of the Mishnah, Rabban Gamaliel II. and Hillel, which break the sequence. Chapters in., iv -Maxims of numerous authorities, mostly Mishnah teachers and called Rabbis (Matt. xxii. 7 seq.; J. F. p. 27), not in exact chronological order.
Chapters v., vi.-Chap. v. which is sui generis, is presumably of later date than what precedes. Naming no teacher until the end, it CO1'I'lblI1CS historical, legendary and didactic elements. It touches upon the miraculous and its place 1n nature (v. 9). In form it is a series of numbered groups of things, from the ten creative Sayings to the triads of qualities which differentiate the disciples of Balaam and Abraham. R. Jacob ben Sh1mshon's commentary makes Aboth end with the saying of jehudah ben Tema (v. 23), “ Be bold as a leopard, and swift as an eagle, and fleet as a hart, and strong as a lion, to do the will of thy Father who is in heaven.” Chapter vi., on acquisztio legzs, is thought to have been added for use on the last ot the six sabbaths above-mentioned (Strack, J. F. Ap. p. 61). In some manuscripts there are seven chapters.
Pirke Aboth serves as a primer to the student of rabbinic judaism. For the most part in simple Hebrew, it has e. few sayings in Aramaic (i 13-ii, 7, v. 25, 26) and some adopted Greek words, as Paraclete (iv. 13, Philo). He who would be pious should fulfil the dicta of Aboth (Baba Kam. goa). It gives favourite aphorisms of leading Jewish teachers who flourished in or before the earliest Christian centuries, and supplies material for some interesting illustrations of the New Testament Too heterogeneous to be represented by a few extracts, the collection
