| 1511 to 1900. Pitch ascending. | Authority. | V. at 59°F. | |
| Broadwood's medium | 1850 | Ellis | 445·9 |
| Pans grand opera | 1858 | Lissajous | 448·0 |
| Lazarus's clarinet | 1843 | Ellis and Hipkins | 448·0 |
| Gewandhaus, Leipzig | 1869 | Ellis | 448·2 |
| Berlin opera | 1857 | Lissajous | 448·4 |
| Milan opera, La Scala | 1856 | Lissajous | 450·3 |
| Philharmonic, London | 1846–1854 | Ellis and Hipkins | 452·5 |
| Kneller Hall | 1890 | Hipkins | 452·5 |
| Philharmonic, London | 1874 | Hipkins | 454·0 |
| Streicher's tuning - fork, Vienna | 1859 | Ellis | 456·1 |
| Strauss's Band, Imperial Institute, London, open air |
1897 | Hipkins | 457·5 |
Table III.
Orchestral Pitch. 1899. Authority. V. at 68°F.
Leipzig . Bluthner a1435·0
Berlin Bechstein 438·0
New York . Steinway . 438·6
Boston Chickering . 438·8
London ... . Broadwood 439·0
St Petersburg Becker 439·4
Meiningen (and Bayreuth) Mühlfeld's clarinet 439·5
Stuttgart ... A. Schiedmayer 440·0
Vienna . Bosendorfer 440·0
London. Covent Garden opera . Hipkins 440·0
Paris Erard 442·4
Verified by A. J. Hipkins. But for Leipzig a comparison with the Gewandhaus Band may be sought. (A. J. H.)
PITCHBLENDE, or Uraninite, a mineral species consisting
essentially of uranium oxide, of importance as a source of
uranium and radium. It is a very heavy (specific gravity 9·0–9·7),
compact mineral with a conchoidal to uneven fracture, and
a brownish to velvet-black colour and pitchy lustre. Crystals
are rare; they have the form of regular octahedra or less
often of cubes. The hardness is 512, and the streak is brown with a greenish tinge. The mineral has been known to occur
at Joachimsthal in Bohemia since 1727, and it was early called
pitchblende, because of its appearance; but its true nature
was not recognized until 1789, when M. H. Klaproth's analysis
of it resulted in the discovery of the element uranium. Analyses
of material from different localities exhibit wide variations in
chemical composition. In addition to uranium oxides, there
are thorium, cerium (and lanthanum), yttrium and lead oxides,
each varying in amount from a trace up to 10%. Calcium, iron,
magnesium, manganese, silica, water, &c., are also present in
small amounts. The amounts of uranous and uranic oxides
(UO2, 21–72; UO3, 13–59%) also vary considerably. The
mineral is often described as a uranate of uranyl, lead, thorium
and cerium; but in the least altered material from Branchville
in Connecticut the uranous oxide predominates, whilst in altered
specimens uranic oxide is in excess. In the closely allied
mineral, thorianite, thorium predominates (ThO2, 76; UO2, 12%) Since the dioxides of uranium, thorium and cerium may
be obtained artificially as cubic crystals, it seems probable
that pitchblende consists of isomorphous mixtures of these
dioxides, the uranic oxide being due to oxidation.
The radio-active properties of pitchblende are of special interest. The fact that this mineral is more strongly radio-active than metallic uranium led to the discovery in it of the elements radium, polonium and actinium. When pitchblende is ignited or dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, a gas is evolved which consists largely of helium and argon: terrestrial helium was first recognized in this mineral.
The mineral occurs either as a primary constituent of granitic rocks or as one of secondary origin in metalliferous veins. Octahedral crystals (“cleveite” and “broggerite”) occur in the pegmatite veins of southern Norway, being occasionally found in the felspar quarries at Moss, Arendal and other places Crystals are found under similar conditions at Middletown and Branchville in Connecticut, Llano county in Texas (“nivenite”), Mitchell county in North Carolina, Villenveuve in Quebec, and other American localities. Thorianite, found as water-worn cubes in the gem-gravels near Balangoda in Sabaragamuwa province, Ceylon, has also no doubt been derived from crystalline rocks. On the other hard, the mineral found in metalliferous veins, and to which the name pitchblende is more properly restricted, never occurs as crystals, but as compact masses rendered more or less impure by admixture of other minerals, the specific gravity being sometimes as low as 6.5, thorium, cerium, &c., are absent, and radium and helium are present in smaller amounts. This variety occurs with ores of silver, lead, copper, nickel, cobalt, bismuth, &c, at Johanngeorgenstadt, Marienberg and Schneeberg in Saxony, Joachimsthal and Przibram in Bohemia, Rezbánya in Bihar Mountains in Hungary, Gilpin county in Colorado, St Just, in Penwith, Redruth, Grampound Road and elsewhere in Cornwall.
Often associated with pitchblende, and resulting from its alteration, is an orange-yellow, amorphous, gum-like mineral called gummite, which is a hydrous uranic oxide with small amounts of lead, calcium, iron, &c. (L. J. S.)
PITCHER. (1) A large vessel for holding liquids, derived through Fr. from Med. Lat. picarium; the Lat. variant bicarium, Gr. βῖκος, has given the Ger. Becher, Eng. beaker (q.v.). (2) One who “pitches,” i.e. throws, casts, fixes; the name of the player in the game of base-ball who pitches or delivers the ball to the
striker.
PITCHER PLANTS, in botany, the name given to plants in which the leaves bear pitcher-like structures or are pitcher-like
in form. The plant generally understood by this name is Nepenthes, a genus containing nearly sixty species, natives of
tropical Asia, north Australia and (one only) of Madagascar. North Borneo is especially rich in species. They are shrubby plants climbing over surrounding vegetation by means of tendril-like prolongations of the midrib of the leaf beyond the leaf-tip.
 Fig. 1.—Pitcher of Nepenthes distillatoria. A, Honey-gland from attractive C, Transverse section of the same. |
The pitcher is a development at the end of the tendril. It is generally tubular in form, but in some species two forms are produced on the same plant, lower or terrestrial goblet-shaped pitchers and upper suspended pitchers retaining the more primitive more or less tubular form; in a few species a third form—funnel—or cornucopia-shaped pitchers—occurs in the upper part. In the terrestrial type a pair of well-developed wings traverse the length of the pitcher; in the tubular or funnel shaped form the wings are narrow or ridge-like. The mouth of the pitcher has a corrugated rim (peristome) formed by in curving of the margin, the convex surface of which is firm and shining. It is traversed by more or less prominent parallel
