in the breeding-season, it is separated by the prominent testicular
mass. The testes in the pairing-season form projections in the
groins, but (except in the Duplicidentata) do not completely leave
the cavity of the abdomen. Prostate glands and, except in the
Duplicidentata, vesiculae seminales are present in all. The uterus
may be double, each division opening by a separate os uteri into
a common vagina, as in Leporidae, Sciuridae, and Hydrochoerus, or
two-horned, as in most species. The teats vary in number from a
single abdominal pair in the guinea-pig to six thoracic-abdominal
pairs in the rats; while in the Octadontidae and Capromyidae they
are placed high up on the sides of the body.
There are generally nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebrae (thirteen thoracic and six lumbar), the form of which varies in different genera; in the cursorial and leaping species the lumbar transverse processes are generally very long, and in the hares there are large compressed inferior spines, or hypapophyses. The caudal vertebrae vary from a rudimentary condition in the guinea-pig to a great size in the jumping-hare and prehensile-tailed porcupines. The scapula is usually narrow, with a long acromion; the clavicles may be altogether absent or imperfect, as in porcupines, cavies and hares, but in most species are well developed. The humerus has no supra-condylar foramen, and the forearm bones are distinct; and in most species the fore foot has five digits with the phalanges normally developed, the first toe being but rarely rudimentary or absent. The pelvis has large ischia and pubes, with a long and usually bony symphysis. The femur varies considerably in form, but generally has a well-defined third trochanter. In the squirrels and porcupines the tibia and fibula are distinct, but in rats and hares they are united, often high up. The hind foot is more variable than the front one, the digits varying in number from five, as in squirrels and rats, to four, as in hares, or even three, as in the capybara, viscacha and agouti. In the Jaculidae the metatarsals are greatly elongated, and in some of the species, as jerboas, they are welded together.
The mouth is divided into two cavities communicating by a narrow orifice, the anterior one containing the incisors and the posterior the molars, the hairy skin of the face being continued inwards behind the incisors. This evidently prevents substances not intended for food getting into the mouth, as when the animal is engaged in gnawing through an obstacle. In hares and pacas the inside of the cheeks is hairy; and in some species, pouched rats and hamsters, there are large internal cheek-pouches lined with hair, which open near the angles of the mouth and extend backwards behind the ears. In the New World pouched rats (Geomyidae) the pouches open externally on the cheeks.
The peculiar odour evolved by many rodents is due to the secretions of special glands, which may open into the prepuce, as in Mus, Microtus and Cricetus, or into the rectum, as in Arctomys and Thryonomys, or into the passage common to both, as in the beaver, or into pouches opening near the vent, as in hares, agoutis and jerboas.
The skin is generally thin, and the panniculus carnosus muscle rarely much developed. The fur varies exceedingly in character,—in some, like the chinchillas and hares, being fine and soft, while in others it is more or less replaced by spines on the upper surface, as in spiny rats and porcupines; these spines in several genera, as Xerus, Acomys, Platocanthomys, Echinothrix, Loncheres and Echinomys, being fattened. In muscular structure the chief peculiarities are noticeable in the comparatively small size of the temporal muscles, and in the great double masseters (fig. 2), which are the principal agents in gnawing. The digastric muscles also are remarkable for their well-defined central tendon, and in many species their anterior bellies are united between the two halves of the lower jaw. The cleido-mastoid generally arises from the basi-occipital, and the pectoral is major is connected with the latissimus dorsi. In porcupines and hares the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallucis longus are connected in the foot, while in the rats and squirrels they are separate, and the flexor digitorum longus is generally inserted into the metatarsal of the first toe.
Classification.—Some diversity of view obtains among naturalists with regard to the classification of the order; the scheme here followed being the one adopted (with some modifications of nomenclature) by Professor Max Weber in his Säugethiere. The number of genera is so great that only the more important can be noticed. All authorities are agreed in dividing rodents into two great sections or sub-orders, the one, Duplicidentata, comprising only the hares, rabbits and picas, and the other, Simplicidentata, all the rest. In the latter there is only one pair of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, in which the enamel is confined to the front surface. The incisive foramina of the palate are moderate and distinct; the fibula does not articulate with the calcaneum; and the testes are abdominal, and descend periodically only into the inguinal canal.
Sewellels.—The first family is represented by certain peculiar North American rodents known as sewellels, constituting the genus Haplodon (or Aplodon) and the family Haplodontidae and section Haplodontoidea. In common with the next three sections these rodents have the angular process of the lower jaw (fig. 4) arising from the inferior surface of the socket of the incisor. The masseter muscle does not pass through the narrow infra-orbital canal. An alisphenoid canal may be present on the palatal aspect of the skull; but there is always a transverse canal. The malleus and incus of the inner ear are separate. The humerus often has a foramen (entepicondylar) on the inner side of its lower end; the tibia and fibula may be separate or united; but the scaphoid and lunar of the carpus are also united, while the centrale is free. The stomach is simple.
Fig. 4.—Skull of the American Marmot (Arctomys monax). The projection at the right-hand lower corner of the figure is the angular process of the lower jaw.
Sewellels are medium-sized terrestrial rodents, with no post-orbital process to the skull, which is depressed in form, and rootless cheek-teeth, among which the premolars number 21, the first in the upper jaw being very small. The build is stout and heavy, the limbs and tail are short, the ears moderate, the eyes minute and the feet five-toed and plantigrade. Haplodon is represented by a small number of species in America west of the Rocky Mountains, of which H. rufus is the longest known. They are burrowing, and, in some cases at any rate, partially aquatic rodents.
Squirrel Group.—The Sciuroidea, which include the great group of squirrels, sousliks, marmots, &c., all comprised in the single family Sciuridae, differ from the sewellels in having large post-orbital processes to the skull (figs. 4, 5, 6); and, with one exception, have rooted cheek-teeth, the premolar-formula being 2 or 11. The infra-orbital foramen is also narrower, and the tympanic bulla is cellular. In both groups the tibia and fibula are separate.
The family is divided into three sub-families, the first of which is the Sciurinae. In this the crowns of the molars are more or less shortened, with their cusps either arranged in longitudinal lines, or forming four upper and three lower more or less distinct oblique ridges. The post-orbital processes of the frontal and jugal are widely sundered, and the former may even be small (Xerus). The expanded anterior root of the zygomatic process has its front border oblique. According to modern views the sub-family is broken up into a large number of genera.
The first of these is Rhithrosciurus, represented by one large species (R. notatus) from Borneo, characterized by its finely grooved incisors (see Groove-Toothed Squirrel). The second genus, Heliosciurus, includes arboreal African squirrels, typified by H. stangeri, allied in the characters of their skulls to the under-mentioned Xerus, and with a very large pre-orbital foramen in the more typical forms. The third, Funisciurus, of which F. pyrrhopus is a well-known example, is also African and allied to Xerus, but has a still longer skull and soft fur. In Xerus itself, which is represented by the terrestrial African spiny squirrels, the ears are short, there are only two teats, and flat spines are mingled with the fur; while the skull, and more especially the frontals, is elongated, with a very short post-orbital process, and the crowns of the molars are taller than usual (see Spiny Squirrel). The well-known Indian palm-squirrel, Funambulus palmarum, typifies an Indo-Malay genus allied to Xerus in skull-characters but with molars more like those of Sciurus. In contrast to these small striped species are the giant squirrels of the same region, such as Ratufa indica and R. bicolor, which are very brightly coloured rodents, with Sciurus-like skulls (fig. 5) but extremely short-crowned molars, and only one pair of upper premolars. Next comes the typical Sciurus, including the great bulk of the entire group, and ranging over Europe, Asia, North Africa and America. The skull is short and broad, especially as regards the frontals, with large post-orbital processes (fig. 5), and very generally two upper premolars, making a total of five pairs of upper cheek-teeth, which have crowns of medium height. The teats are either four or six. Squirrels of this and the other arboreal groups have the bodily form slender and agile, the tail long and bushy, the ears well developed, pointed and often tufted; the feet adapted for
