no place for democratic or representative elements: the grasp of the state must at all times be felt. The superintendent must speak at all times as a minister of the state, and the state must be represented in the synod to which he makes his first report, for upon the synod there must sit not only the pastors but also a delegate from every parish. If any appeal should be made from the decisions of the synod it must be heard in the court of the electoral prince, for he, as supreme civil ruler, possessed the jus episcopate, the right of oversight of the churches. Luther proposed that he should exercise this right by appointing a consistorial court composed in part of theologians and in part of canon lawyers, and it was thus that in 1542 the Wittenberg ecclesiastical consistory was formed. Other principalities adopted the model, so that the institution became common throughout the Lutheran churches.
In this scheme the superintendent (or superattendant) was charged with such part of the duty of the older bishops as had been purely administrative. He must concern himself with the discharge of their duties by the pastors of the churches, as well as with their character and demeanour. He must supervise their conduct of public worship, as well as give them licence to preach. He must take cognizance of their ministry to the indigent in their parishes, and of their management of the schools. He must further direct the studies of candidates for the pastoral office. He was answerable to the civil authorities to report all evil-living and false teaching, and those authorities had final power in the matters referred to them. If those matters, however, presented technical difficulties, they could be referred to the consistorial courts.
The earliest occasion of the appointment of such a superintendent would seem to be found in the decisions of Prince John of Saxony about 1527. He assigns the duties of the office, and summons the newly appointed officer to give diligent heed to the conduct and teaching of the pastors under him, faithfully to warn them of all errors, and, in case they prove obstinate, to report them to the electoral court. He must further give close attention to the due observance of the marriage laws, for” in this matter the previously appointed visitors to the principality had reported grave laxity. The title of this office was not new, but was taken over from the later Scholastics, who had employed it as a suitable translation of the word ἐπίσκοποι, but Prince John made it clear that his superintendents were not to be bishops in the old sense of the term. For every pastor was declared in the reformed doctrine to be truly a bishop and to have the spiritual functions and authority of a bishop; but the older bishops had also claimed a large number of administrative powers, and these for the future must be retained in the hands of the secular power, which would express itself in the first instance through the state-appointed superintendent. In the few cases in which the old bishoprics were retained in Lutheran communities their tenants held office directly from the state.
Some of the smaller principalities appointed but a single superintendent for their territory, who, instead of being answerable to a consistory, sat as spiritual member on the territorial council, whilst in towns the superintendent was summoned to the town council whenever Church matters arose for discussion. In larger states there were various classes of superintendents with their respective duties severally assigned.
In modern times the functions of the superintendent have been somewhat confused in consequence of the introduction into Lutheran Church theory of inconsistent elements of Presbyterian and synodal .
See T. M. Lindsay, History of the Reformation (1906), i. 400–416; and the articles “ Kirchenordnung ” and “ Superintendent " in Herzog-Haick's Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche. (E. Ar.*)
SUPERIOR, the most north-westerly of the Great Lakes of
North America, and the largest body of freshwater in the world,
lying between 46° 30′ and 48° N., and 84° 30′ and 92° W. It
is bounded E. and N. by the province of Ontario, W. by the
state of Minnesota, and S. by Wisconsin and Michigan. It
has deep, extremely cold, clear water, and high and rocky
shores along a large portion of its coast. Its general form is
that of a wide crescent convex towards the north, but its shores
are more irregular in outline than those of the other lakes.
Following the curves of its axis from west to east the lake is
about 383 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 160 m. Its
maximum recorded depth is 1008 ft., and its height above
mean sea level is 602 ft., or about 21 ft. above that of lakes
Michigan and Huron, to which it is joined at its eastern extremity
through the river St Mary. The lake receives the waters
of 200 rivers, and drains a territory of 48,600 sq. m., the total
area of its basin being 80,400 sq. m. The largest river which
empties into it is the St Louis, at its western end. The principal
rivers on the north shore are the Pigeon, which forms
the international boundary line, the Kaministikwia, the Nipigon,
which drains the lake of the same name and together with the
lake is about 200 m. long, the Pic, the White and the Michipicoten.
No large rivers empty into Lake Superior from the
south. There are not many islands in the lake, the largest
being Isle Royal, 44 m. long; Michipicoten Island in the eastern
part; St Ignace, in the northern part, off the mouth of the
Nipigon River; Grand Island between Pictured Rocks and
Marquette; Manitou Island, east of Keweenaw Point, and the
Apostle Group, to the north of Chequamegon Bay.
The boundary between the United States and Canada runs up the middle of the outlet of the lake and follows a median line approximately to about mid-lake; thence it sweeps north-westward, so as to include Isle Royal within the territory of the United States, and continues near the north shore, to the mouth of Pigeon River, which it follows westward, leaving the whole west end of the lake in United States territory.
Lake Superior lies in a deep rift in rocks principally of Archean and Cambrian age, of the Laurentian, Huronian and Keweenaw formations, rich in minerals that have been extensively worked. The lake is, as it were, surrounded by iron, which is the probable cause of very strong magnetic fields of influence. Native silver as well as silver ores exist around Thunder Bay, native copper was formerly worked on Isle Royal, and rich copper mines are worked on the south shore, while nickel abounds in the country north of the lake. The Archean rocks produce a picturesque coast-line, the north shore particularly being indented by deep bays surrounded by high cliffs, mostly burnt off and somewhat desolate; the islands also rise abruptly to considerable heights, the north shore furnishing the boldest scenery of the Great Lakes. On the south coast, opposite the broadest part of the lake, are precipitous walls of red sandstone, extending about 14 m., famous as the Pictured Rocks, so called from the effect of wave action on them. There are no appreciable tides and little current. A general set of the water towards the outlet exists, especially on the southern shore. From the Apostle Islands to the eastward of Keweenaw point this current has great width, and towards the eastern end of the lake spreads out in the shape of a fan, a branch passing to the northward and westward reaching the north coast. Autumn storms raise dangerous seas. The level varies with the season, and also from year to year, the maximum variation, covering a cycle of years, being about 5 ft. The discharge of the lake is computed to be 75,200 cubic ft. per second at mean stage of water.
The season of navigation, controlled by the opening and closing of the Sault Ste Marie canals, averages about eight months-from the middle of April to the middle of December. The season has been extended for a few days, in both spring and autumn, by the use of ice-breaking tugs at Fort William and Port Arthur, this service being organized by the government particularly to facilitate the movement of grain from the Canadian North-west. The lake never freezes over, though the temperature of the water does not, even in summer, rise far above freezing point. The bays freeze over and there is border ice, often gathered by wind into large fields in the bays and extremities of the lake.
Lake Superior is fairly well provided with- natural harbours, and works of improvement have created additional harbours of refuge at various points. Marquette, Mich., Presque Ile Point, Mich., Agate Bay, Minn., Grand Marais, Minn., and Ashland, Wis., are on bays which have protective breakwaters across their mouths. Duluth, Superior, Port Wing, Wis., Ontonagon, Mich., and Grand Marais, Mich., are harbours with entrances formed by parallel jetties extending across obstructing bars. On the Canadian side Fort Vtlilliam, in the mouth of the Kaministikwia, and Port Arthur, four miles distant, an artificial harbour, are the only important shipping points, being the lake terminals of three great transcontinental railway systems, though the whole north shore is liberally supplied with natural harbours. The traffic on Lake Superior grows constantly in volume, the increase in tonnage of each year over that of the preretling year having, for 50 years past, averaged 20 %. The freight carried into and out of the lake, as gauged by
