to the margins of inland rivers and lakes; but it is very rarely seen except near water, and salt water for preference.
The turnstone is about as big as an ordinary snipe; but, compared with most of its allies of the group Limicolae, to which it belongs, its form is somewhat heavy, and its legs are short. Still it is brisk in its movements, and its variegated plumage makes it a pleasing bird. Seen in front, its white face, striped with black, and broad black gorget attract attention as it sits, often motionless, on the rocks; while in flight the white of the lower part of the back and white band across the wings are no less conspicuous even at a distance. A nearer view will reveal the rich chestnut of the mantle and upper wing-coverts, and the combination of colours thus exhibited suggests the term “tortoise-shell” often applied to it—the quill-feathers being mostly of a dark brown and its lower parts pure white. The deeper tints are, however, peculiar to the nuptial plumage, or are only to be faintly traced at other times, so that in winter the adults—and the young always—have a much plainer appearance, ashy-grey and white being almost the only hues observable. From the fact that turnstones may be met with at almost any season in various parts of the world, and especially on islands on the Canaries, Azores, and many of those in the British seas, it has been inferred that these birds may breed in such places. In some cases this may prove to be true, but in most evidence to that effect is wanting. In America the breeding-range of this species has not been defined. In Europe there is good reason to suppose that it includes Shetland; but it is on the north-western coast of the Continent, from Jutland to the extreme north of Norway, that the greatest number are reared. The nest, contrary to the habits of most Limicolae, is generally placed under under a ledge of rock which shelters the bird from observation,[1] and therein are laid four eggs, of a light-olive green, closely blotched with brown, and hardly to be mistaken for those of any other bird. A second species of turnstone is admitted by some authors and denied by others. This is the S. melanocephalus of the Pacific coast of North America, which is on the average larger than S. interpres, and never exhibits any of the chestnut colouring.
Though the genus Strepsilas seems to be rightly placed among the Charadriidae (see Plover), it occupies a somewhat abnormal position among them, and in the form of its short pointed beak and its variegated coloration has hardly any near relatives. (A. N.)
TURNU MAGURELE, the capital of the department of Teleorman, Rumania; 2½ m. N.E. of the confluence of the Olt and Danube, at the terminus of a branch railway. Pop. (1900), 8668. A ferry plies across the Danube to the Bulgarian fortress of Nicopolis. Large quantities of grain are shipped in lighters to Braila. There are some vestiges of a Roman bridge across the Danube built (c. A.D. 330) by Constantine the Great.
TURNU SEVERIN, the capital of the department of Mehedintzi, Rumania, on the main Walachian railway, and on the left bank of the river Danube, below the Iron Gates cataracts. Pop. (1900), 18,628. It is a modern commercial town, having a school of arts and crafts, several churches, and large government yards for the building of river steamers, lighters and tug-boats. There is a considerable trade in livestock, preserved meat, petroleum and cereals. The town, which was originally called Drobetae by the Romans, took its later name of Turris Severi, or the “Tower of Severus,” from a tower which stood on a small hill surrounded by a deep fosse. This was built to commemorate a victory over the Quadi and Marcomanni, by the Roman emperor Severus (A.D. 222–235). Near Turnu Severin are the remains of the celebrated Trajan's bridge, the largest in the Roman Empire, built in A.D. 103 by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The river is about 4000 ft. broad at this spot. The bridge was composed of twenty arches supported by stone pillars, several of which are still visible at low water.
TURPENTINE (in M. Eng. turbentine, adapted through the O. Fr. turbentine or terebentine from Lat. terebinthina, sc. resina, resin of the terebinth, Gr. τερέβινθος or τέρμινθος), the oleo-resins which exude from certain trees, especially from some conifers—such as Pinus sylvestris—and from the terebinth tree, Pistacia terebinthus, L. It was to the product of the latter, now known as Chian turpentine, that the term was first applied. The terebinth tree and its resin were well known and highly prized from the earliest times. The tree is a native of the islands and shores of the Mediterranean, passing eastward into Central Asia; but the resinous exudation found in commerce is collected in the island of Chios. Chian turpentine is a tenacious semi-fluid transparent body, yellow to dull brown in colour, with an agreeable resinous odour and little taste. On exposure to the air it becomes dry, hard and brittle. In their natural characters, turpentines are soft solids or semi-fluid bodies, consisting of resins dissolved in turpentine oil, the chief constituent of which is pinene. They are largely used in the arts, being separated by distillation into rosin or colophon (see Rosin), and oil or spirit of turpentine.
Crude or common turpentine is the commercial name which embraces the oleo-resin yielded by several coniferous trees, both European and American. The principal European product, sometimes distinguished as Bordeaux turpentine, is obtained from the cluster pine, Pinus Pinaster, in the Landes department of France. Crude turpentine is further yielded by the Scotch fir, P. sylvestris, throughout northern Europe, and by the Corsican pine, P. Laricio, in Austria and Corsica. In the United States the turpentine-yielding pines are the swamp pine, P. australis, and the loblolly, P. Taeda, both inhabiting North and South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. Venice turpentine is yielded by the larch tree, Larix europaea, from which it is collected principally in Tirol. Strassburg turpentine is obtained from the bark of the silver fir; but it is collected only in small quantities. Less known turpentines are obtained from the mountain pine, P. Pumilio, the stone pine, P. Cembra, the Aleppo pine, P. halepensis, &c. The so-called Canada balsam, from Abies balsamea, is also a true turpentine.
Oil of Turpentine, or Turps, as a commercial product is obtained from all or any of these oleo-resins, but on a large scale only from crude or common turpentine. The essential oil is rectified by redistillation with water and alkaline carbonates, and the water which the oil carries over with it is removed by a further distillation over calcium chloride. Oil of turpentine is a colourless liquid of oily consistence, with a strong characteristic odour and a hot disagreeable taste. It begins to boil at about 155° C., and its specific gravity is between 0.860 and 0.880. It rotates the plane of polarized light both to right and left in varying degrees according to its sources, the American product being dextrorotatory and the French laevorotatory. It is almost insoluble in water, is miscible with absolute alcohol and ether, and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins and caoutchouc. On exposure to the air it dries to a solid resin, and absorbing oxygen gives off ozone—a reaction utilized in the disinfectant called “Sanitas.” Agitated with successive quantities of sulphuric acid and distilled in a current of steam, it yields terebene, a mixture of dipentene and terpinene mainly, which is used in medicine. Chemically, oil of turpentine is a more or less complex mixture of hydrocarbons generically named terpenes (q.v.). Oil of turpentine is largely used in the preparation of varnishes and as a medium by painters in their “flat” colours.
Pharmacology and Therapeutics.—Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthinae) is administered internally as an anthelmintic to kill tapeworm. Applied externally it possesses, in higher degree than any of its fellows, the properties of the volatile oils. It acts as a rubefacient, an irritant and a counter-irritant. It is also an antiseptic and, in small quantities, a feeble anaesthetic. It is absorbed by the unbroken skin. The drug is largely employed as a counter-irritant, the pharmacopoeia liniments being very useful applications. Such conditions as myalgia, bronchitis, “chronic rheumatism” and pleurisy are often relieved by its use. It may also be employed as a parasiticide in ringworm and similar conditions.
In large doses oil of turpentine causes purging and may induce much hemorrhage from the bowel; it should be combined with some trustworthy aperient, such as castor oil, when given as an anthelmintic. It is readily absorbed unchanged and has a marked contractile action upon the blood vessels. This gives it the rare and valuable property of a remote haemostatic, erroneously supposed to be possessed by so many useless drugs. It must not be used to check hemorrhage from the kidneys (haematuria) owing to its irritant action on those organs, but in haemoptysis (hemorrhage from the lungs) it is often an invaluable remedy. In large doses it has a depressant action on the nervous system, leading even to coma and total abolition of reflex action. The drug is excreted partly by the bronchi—which it tends to disinfect—and partly in the urine, which it causes to smell of violets. Glycuronic acid also appears in the urine. A small portion of the drug is removed by the skin, in which it may give rise to an erythematous rash. It must not be given to the subjects of Bright's disease.
Perhaps the most valuable of all the medicinal applications of turpentine, and one which is rarely, if ever, mentioned in therapeutic textbooks—owing to the fact that gynaecology has been so extremely specialized—is in inoperable cancer of the uterus. Quite
- ↑ There is little external difference between the sexes, and the brightly contrasted colours of the hen-bird seem to require some kind of concealment.
