typhus fever is rapid (100–120 or more) and at first full, but later on feeble. Its condition as indicating the strength of the heart's action is watched with anxiety. The tongue, at first coated with a white fur, soon becomes brown and dry, while sordes (dried mucus, &c.) accumulate upon the teeth; the appetite is gone; and intense thirst prevails. The bowels are as a rule constipated, and the urine is diminished in amount and high coloured. The physician may make out distinct enlargement of the spleen.
3. The third stage is characterized by the appearance of the eruption, which generally shows itself about the fourth or fifth day or later, and consists of dark red (mulberry-coloured) spots or blotches varying in size from mere points to three or four lines in diameter, very slightly elevated above the skin, at first disappearing on pressure, but tending to become both darker in hue and more permanent. They appear chiefly on the abdomen, sides, back and limbs, and occasionally on the face. Besides this characteristic typhus rash, there is usually a general faint mottling all over the surface. The typhus rash is rarely absent and is a very important diagnostic of the disease. In the more severe and fatal forms of the fever the rash has all through a very dark colour, and slight subcutaneous hemorrhage's (petechiae) are to be seen in abundance. After the appearance of the eruption the patient's condition seems to be easier, so far as regards the headache and discomfort which marked the outset of the symptoms; but this is also to be ascribed to the tendency to pass into the typhous stupor which supervenes about this time, and becomes more marked throughout the course of the second week. On the examination of the blood a marked leucocytosis is present. This is considered to be diagnostic in doubtful cases when the rash is badly marked. The patient now lies on his back, with a dull dusky countenance, an apathetic or stupid expression, and contracted pupils. All the febrile symptoms already mentioned are fully developed, and delirium, usually of a low muttering kind, but sometimes wild and maniacal (delirium ferox), is present both by night and day. The peculiar condition to which the term “coma vigil” is applied, in which the patient, though quite unconscious, lies with eyes widely open, is regarded, especially if persisting for any length of time, as an unfavourable omen. Throughout the second week the symptoms continue unabated; but there is in addition great weakness, the pulse becoming very feeble, the breathing shallow and rapid, and often accompanied with bronchial sounds.
4. A crisis or favourable change takes place about the end of the second or beginning of the third week (on an average the 14th day), and is marked by a more or less abrupt fall of the temperature and of the pulse, together with slight perspiration, a discharge of loaded urine, the return of moisture to the tongue, and by a change in the patient's look, which shows signs of returning intelligence. Although the sense of weakness is extreme, convalescence is in general steady and comparatively rapid.
Typhus fever may, however, prove fatal during any stage of its progress and in the early convalescence, either from sudden failure of the heart's action—a condition which is specially apt to arise—from the supervention of some nervous symptoms, such as meningitis or of deepening coma, or from some other complication, such as bronchitis. Further, a fatal result sometimes takes place before the crisis from sheer exhaustion, particularly in the case of those whose physical or nervous energies have been lowered by hard work, inadequate nourishment and sleep, or intemperance.
Occasionally troublesome sequelae remain for a greater or less length of time. Among these may be mentioned mental weakness or irritability, occasionally some form of paralysis, an inflamed condition of the lymphatic vessels of one leg (the swelled leg of fever), prolonged weakness and ill health, &c. Gradual improvement, however, may be confidently anticipated and even ultimately recovery.
The mortality from typhus fever is estimated by Charles Murchison (1830–1879) and others as averaging about 18% of the cases, but it varies much according to the severity of type (particularly in epidemics), the previous health and habits of the individual, and very specially the age—the proportion of deaths being in striking relation to the advance of life. Thus, while in children under fifteen the death-rate is only 5%, in persons over fifty it is about 46%.
The treatment of typhus fever includes the prophylactic measures of attention to the sanitation of the more densely populated Treatment. portions of towns. Where typhus has broken out in a crowded district the prompt removal of the patients to a fever hospital and the thorough disinfection and cleansing of the infected houses are to be recommended. Where, however, a single case of accidentally caught typhus occurs in a member of a family inhabiting a well-aired house, the chance of it being communicated to others in the dwelling is small; nevertheless every precaution in the way of isolation and disinfection should be taken.
The treatment of a typhus patient is conducted upon the same general principles as in typhoid. Complete isolation should be maintained throughout the illness, and due attention given to the ventilation and cleansing of the sick chamber. Open-air treatment when practicable greatly reduces the temperature. The main element in the treatment of this fever is good nursing, and especially the regular administration of nutriment, of which the best form is milk, although light plain soup may also be given. The food should be administered at stated intervals, not, as a rule, oftener than once in one and a half or two hours, and it will frequently be necessary to rouse the patient from his stupor for this purpose. Sometimes it is impossible to administer food by the mouth, in which case recourse must be had to nutrient enemata. Alcoholic stimulants are not often required, except in the case of elderly and weakly persons who have become greatly exhuasted by the attack and are threatening to collapse. When the pulse shows unsteadiness and undue rapidity, and the first sound of the heart is but indistinctly heard by the stethoscope, the prompt administration of stimulants (of which the best form is pure spirit) will often succeed in averting danger. Should their use appear to increase the restlessness or delirium they should be discontinued and the diffusible (ammoniacal or ethereal) forms tried instead.
Many other symptoms demand special treatment. The headache may be mitigated by removing the hair and applying cold to the head. The sleeplessness, with or without delirium, may be combated by quietness, by a moderately darkened room (although a distinction between day and night should be made as regards the amount of admitted light), and by soothing and gentle dealing on the part of the nurse. Opiate and sedative medicines in any form, although recommended by many high authorities, must be given with great caution, as their use is often attended with danger in this fever, where coma is apt to supervene. When resorted to, probably the safest form is a combination of the bromide of potassium or ammonium with a guarded amount of chloral. Alarming effects sometimes follow the administration of opium. Occasionally the deep stupor calls for remedies to rouse the patient, and these may be employed in the form of mustard or cantharides to the surface (calves of legs, nape of neck, over region of heart, &c.), of the cold affusion, or of enemata containing turpentine. The height of the temperature may be a serious symptom, and antipyretic remedies appear to have but a slight influence over it as compared to that which they possess in typhoid fever, acute rheumatism, &c. Hugo Wilhelm von Ziemssen (1829–1902) strongly recommends baths in hyperpyrexia, the temperature of the bath being gradually reduced by the addition of ice. Cold sponging of the hands and feet and exposed parts, or cold to the head, may often considerably lower the temperature. Throughout the progress of a case the condition of the bladder requires special attention, owing to the patient's drowsiness, and the regular use of the catheter becomes, as a rule, necessary with the advance of the symptoms.
TYPOGRAPHY (i.e. writing by types) is the general term for the art of printing movable (cast-metal) types on paper, vellum, &c. It is distinct from writing, and also from wood-engraving or xylography, which is the art of cutting figures, letters, words, &c., on blocks of wood and taking impressions from such blocks by means of ink, or any other fluid coloured substance, on paper or vellum.
I.—History of Typography
Although the art of writing and that of block-printing both differ widely from printing with movable metal types, yet this last process has apparently been such a gradual transition from block-printing,[1] and block-printing in its turn such a natural outcome of the many trials that were probably made to produce pictures, books, &c., in, some more expeditious manner than could be done with handwriting, that a cursory glance at these two processes will not seem out of place, especially as a discussion on the origin and progress of typography could hardly be understood without knowing the state of the literary development at the time that printing appeared.
The art of printing, i.e. of impressing (by means of certain forms and colours) figures, pictures, letters, words, lines, whole pages, &c., on other objects, as also the art of engraving, which is inseparably connected with printing, existed long before the 15th century. Not to go back to remoter essays, there is reason to suppose that medieval kings and princes (among others William
- ↑ We do not deal here with copperplate engraving (chalcography), nor with the question, raised by some authors, whether this art preceded that of wood-engraving (xylography), or vice versa. The earliest known date of the former is 1446 on the small engravings of “the Passion” in the Berlin Royal Print Room, whereas the earliest known date of wood-engraving is 1418 (on the Brussels Mary engraving). Both arts were naturally dependent upon MSS. for the forms of their letters, but as to the question of transition from the art of writing to that of typography, xylography alone can be regarded as the intervening and connecting link between those two arts, and there are good reasons for assuming that the inventor of printing with movable types was a xylographer (see below).
