across the trend of the piedmont belt, the ridges and valleys, and
the plateau of the Appalachians, which are all terminated by dipping
The Mississippi Embayment.
gently beneath the unconformable cover of the coastal
plain strata. In the same way the western side of the
embayment, trending south and south-west, passes along the
lower south-eastern side of the dissected Ozark plateau
of southern Missouri and northern Arkansas, which in many ways
resembles the Appalachian plateau, and along the eastern end of the
Massern ranges of the Ouachita mountain system in central Arkansas,
which in geological history and topographical form present many
analogies with the ridges and valleys of the Appalachians; and as
the coastal plain turns westward to Texas it borders the Arbuckle
hills in Oklahoma, a small analogue of the crystalline Appalachian
belt. In the embayment of the coastal plain some low cuesta-like
belts of hills with associated strips of lowlands suggest the features
of a belted coastal plain; the hilly belt or dissected cuesta determined by
the Grand Gulf formation in western Mississippi is the most distinct.
Important salt deposits occur in the coastal plain strata near the
coast. The most striking feature of the embayment is the broad
valley which the Mississippi has eroded across it.
The lower Mississippi is the trunk in which three large rivers join; the chief figures (approximate only) regarding them are as follows:—
| Drainage Area (square miles). |
Percentage of Total Discharge. | |
| Upper Mississippi | 170,000 | 18 |
| Ohio | 210,000 | 31 |
| Missouri | 530,000 | 14 |
The small proportion of total water volume supplied from the great Missouri basin is due to the light precipitation in that region. The The Lower Mississippi River. lower Mississippi receives no large tributary from the east, but two important ones come from the west; the Arkansas drainage area being a little less than that of the Ohio, and the basin of the Red River of Louisiana being about half as large. The great river thus constituted drains an area of about 1,250,000 sq. m., or about one-third of the United States; and discharges 75,000 cub. yds. of water per second, or 785,190,000,000 cubic yds. per annum, which corresponds roughly to one quarter of the total precipitation on its drainage basin. Its load of land waste (see I. C. Russell, Rivers of North America) is as follows:—
| In suspension | 6,718,694,400 | cub. ft. or | 241 | ft. deep over | 1 | sq. m. |
| Swept along bottom | 750,000,000 | ”” | 26 | ”” | 1 | ” |
| In solution | 1,350,000,000 | ”” | 45 | ”” | 1 | ” |
Average annual removal of waste from entire basin, 1320 in. or 1 ft. in 4000 years.
The head of the coastal plain embayment is near the junction of the Ohio and the Mississippi. Thence southward for 560 m. the great river flows through the semi-consolidated strata of the plain, in which it has eroded a valley, 40 or 50 m. wide, and 29,700 sq. m. in area, enclosed by bluffs one or two hundred feet high in the northern part, generally decreasing to the southward, but with local increase of height associated with a decrease in flood plain breadth on the eastern side where the Grand Gulf cuesta is traversed. This valley in the coastal plain, with the much narrower rock-walled valley of the upper river in the prairie states, is the true valley of the Mississippi river; but in popular phrase the “Mississippi Valley” is taken to include a large central part of the Mississippi drainage basin. The valley floor is covered with a flood plain of fine silt, having a southward slope of only half a foot to a mile. The length of the river itself, from the Ohio mouth to the Gulf, is, owing to its windings, about 1060 m.; its mean fall is about 3 in. in a mile. On account of the rapid deposition of sediment near the main channel at times of overflow, the flood plain, as is normally the case on mature valley floors, has a lateral slope of as much as 5, 10, or even 12 ft. in the first mile from the river; but this soon decreases to a less amount. Hence at a short distance from the river the flood plain is often swampy, unless its surface is there aggraded by the tributary streams: for this reason Louisiana, Arkansas and Mississippi rank next after Florida in swamp area.
The great river receives an abundant load of silt from its tributaries, and takes up and lays down silt from its own bed and banks with every change of velocity. The swiftest current tends, by reason of centrifugal force, to follow the outer side of every significant curve in the channel; hence the concave bank, against which the rapid current sweeps, is worn away; thus any chance irregularity is exaggerated, and in time a series of large serpentine or meanders is developed, the most symmetrical examples at present being those near Greenville, Miss. The growth of the meanders tends to give the river continually increasing length; but this tendency is counteracted by the sudden occurrence of cut-offs from time to time, so that a fairly constant length is maintained.
The floods of the Mississippi usually occur in spring or summer; Owing to the great size of the drainage basin, it seldom happens that the three upper tributaries are in flood at the same time; the coincident occurrence of floods in only two tributaries is of serious import in the lower river, which rises 30, 40, or occasionally 50 ft. The abundant records by the Mississippi River Commission and the United States Weather Bureau (by which accurate and extremely useful predictions of floods in the lower river course are made, on the basis of the observed rise in the tributaries) demonstrate a number of interesting features, of which the chief are as follows: the fall of the river is significantly steepened and its velocity is accelerated down stream from the point of highest rise; conversely, the fall and the velocity are both diminished up stream from the same point.
The load of silt borne down stream by the river finally, after many halts on the way, reaches the waters of the Gulf, where the decrease of velocity, aided by the salinity of the sea water, causes the formation of a remarkable delta, leaving less aggraded areas as shallow lakes (Lake Pontchartrain on the east, and Grand Lake on the west of the river). The ordinary triangular form of deltas, due to the smoothing of the delta front by sea action, is here wanting, because of the weakness of sea action in comparison with the strength of the current in each of the four distributaries or “passes” into which the river divides near its mouth. (See Mississippi River.)
After constriction from the Mississippi embayment to 250 m. in
western Louisiana, the coastal plain continues south-westward
The Texas Coastal Plain.
with this breadth until it narrows to about 130 m. in
southern Texas near the crossing of the Colorado river,
(of Texas); but it again widens to 300 m. at the
national boundary as a joint effect of embayment up the
valley of the Rio Grande and of the seaward advance of this river's
rounded delta front: these several changes take place in a distance
of about 500 m., and hence include a region of over 100,000 sq.
m.—less than half of the large state of Texas. A belted arrangement of
reliefs and soils, resulting from differential erosion on strata of unlike
composition and resistance, characterizes almost the entire area
of the coastal plain. Most of the plain is treeless prairie, but the
sandier belts are forested; two of them are known as “cross timbers,”
because their trend is transverse to the general course of the main
consequent rivers. An inland extension from the coastal plain in
north-central Texas leads to a large cuesta known as Grand Prairie
(not structurally included in the coastal plain), upheld at altitudes
of 1200 or 1300 ft. by a resistant Cretaceous limestone, which dips
gently seaward; its scalloped inland-facing escarpment overlooks
a denuded central prairie region of irregular structure and form;
its gentle coast ward slope (16 ft. to a mile) is dissected by many
branching consequent streams; in its southern part, as it approaches
the Colorado river the cuesta is dissected into a belt of discontinuous
hills. The western cross timbers follow a sandy belt along the inner
base of the ragged escarpment of Grand Prairie; the eastern cross
timbers follow another sandy belt in the lowland between the eastern
slope of Grand Prairie and the pale western escarpment of the next
eastward and lower Black Prairie cuesta. This cuesta is supported
at an altitude of 700 ft. or less by a chalk formation, which gives
an infacing slope some 200 ft. in height, while its gently undulating
or “rolling” seaward slope (2 or 3 ft. in a mile), covered with marly
strata and rich black soil, determines an important cotton district.
Then comes the East Texas timber belt, broad in the north-east,
narrowing to a point before reaching the Rio Grande, a low and
thoroughly dissected cuesta of sandy Eocene strata; and this is
followed by the Coast Prairie, a very young plain, with a seaward
slope of less than 2 ft. in a mile, its smooth surface interrupted
only by the still more nearly level flood plains of the shallow, consequent
river valleys. Near the Colorado river the dissected cuesta
of the Grand Prairie passes southward, by a change to a more nearly
horizontal structure, into the dissected Edwards plateau (to be
referred to again as part of the Great Plains), which terminates in a
maturely dissected fault scarp, 300 or 400 ft. in height, the northern
boundary of the Rio Grande embayment. From the Colorado
to the Rio Grande, the Black Prairie, the timber belt and the Coast
Prairie merge in a vast plain, little differentiated, overgrown with
“chaparral” (shrub-like trees, often thorny), widening eastward in
the Rio Grande delta, and extending southward into Mexico.
Although the Coast Prairie is a sea bottom of very modern uplift, it appears already to have suffered a slight movement of depression, for its small rivers all enter embayments; the larger rivers, however, seem to have counteracted the encroachment of the sea on the land by a sufficiently active delta building, with a resulting forward growth of the land into the sea. The Mississippi has already been mentioned as rapidly building forward its digitate delta; the Rio Grande, next in size, has built its delta about 50 m. forward from the general coast-line, but this river being much smaller than the Mississippi, its delta front is rounded by seashore agencies. In front of the Brazos and the Colorado, the largest of the Texan rivers, the coast-line is very gently bowed forward, as if by delta growth, and the sea touches the mainland in a nearly straight shore line. Nearly all the rest of the coast is fringed by off-shore reefs, built up by waves from the very shallow sea bottom; in virtue of weak tides, the reefs continue in long unbroken stretches between the few inlets.
The Great Plains.—A broad stretch of country under laid by nearly horizontal strata extends westward from the 97th meridian to the base of the Rocky Mountains, a distance of from 300 to 500 m., and northward from the Mexican boundary far into Canada. This is the province of the Great Plains. Although the altitude of plains increases gradually from 600 or 1200 ft. on the east to 4000, 5000 or 6000 ft. near the mountains, the local relief is generally small; the
