army which routed the rebels at Guzow in 1607, though protesting against the necessity of shedding “his brothers’ blood.” For his services he received the palatinate of Kiev. He was opposed to the expedition sent to place the false Demetrius on the throne of Muscovy; but nevertheless accompanied the king to Smolensk and was sent thence with a handful of men against Moscow. On his way thither he defeated and captured Tsar Vasily Shuiski at the battle of Klushino (July 14, 1610), and two months later entered the Russian capital in triumph. His tactful and conciliatory diplomacy speedily won over the boyars, whom he persuaded to offer the Muscovite crown to the Polish crown prince, Wladislaus. For a moment it seemed possible that the Vasa family might occupy the throne of Ivan the Terrible; but Sigismund III. would not consent to the reception of his son into the Greek Church, and refused to ratify the terms made with the boyars. Zolkiewski then returned to the Polish camp and assisted in the reduction of Smolensk, but Moscow in the meantime drove out the Polish garrison and proclaimed a native dynasty under Michael Romanov. When Zolkiewski presented his captives, Tsar Vasily and his family, to the Polish diet, he received an ovation and was rewarded with the dignity of hetman wielki (commander-in-chief). For the next few years he defended the Ukraine against the Tatars and Cossacks, and in 1617 was involved in a war with the Porte owing to the unauthorized interference of the Polish nobles in the affairs of Wallachia and Moldavia. Unable to defeat the vastly superior forces of the Turkish commander Skinder, he concluded with him an advantageous truce at Jaruda (27th of August 1618), by the terms of which he pledged himself to curb the Cossacks and at the same time. renounced all the claims of Poland to the Danubian principalities. Thus he saved the one army of Poland to guard her southern frontier from apparently inevitable destruction. On his return he was fiercely assailed by the diet for not risking everything in a pitched battle, but Zolkiewski defended himself with an eloquence which silenced his most venomous opponents. The peace of Jaruda was then confirmed, and the king conferred upon Zolkiewski the grand-chancellorship, an honour he had neither desired nor expected. Fresh attacks were presently made against him for failing, it was alleged, to prevent the Tatar incursions. So deeply wounded was the hero by these calumnies that when in 1619 he was sent against the Turks he publicly declared that he would never return alive unless victorious. He was as good as his word. Surrounded near the Dniester by countless hosts of Turks, Tatars and Janissaries, he retreated through the Steppes, fighting night and day without food or water, towards Cecora. By the time he reached it, he saw clearly that success was impossible, and deliberately determined to die where he stood. Disguising himself so that his dead body might not be recognized, he turned upon the pursuers and was slain after a desperate resistance (6th of October 1620). His head was cut off, exhibited in the Turkish camp and then sent to Constantinople as a present to the sultan, from whom it was subsequently ransomed at a great price. Zolkiewski is one of the most heroic figures in Polish history. An accomplished general, a skilful diplomatist, and a patriot who not only loved his country above all things, but never feared to tell his countrymen the truth, he excelled in all private and public virtues. As a writer he made a name by an important history of his Muscovite campaigns.
See Stanislaw Gabryel Kozlowski, Life of Stanislaus Zolkiewski (Pol.) (Cracow, 1904). (R. N. B.)
ZÖLLNER, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH (1834–1882), German astronomer and physicist, was born at Berlin on the 8th of November 1834. From 1872 he held the chair of astrophysics at Leipzig University. He wrote numerous papers on photometry and spectrum analysis in Poggendorff’s Annalen and Berichte der k. sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, two works on celestial photometry (Grundzüge einer allgemeinen Photometrie des Himmels, Berlin, 1861, 4to, and Photometrische Untersuchungen, Leipzig, 1865, 8vo), and a curious book, Ueber die Natur der Cometen (Leipzig, 1872, 3rd ed. 1883). He died at Leipzig on the 25th of April 1882.
ZOLLVEREIN (Ger. Zoll, toll, customs, and Verein, union), a term used generally for a certain form of Customs Union, but specially for the system among the German states which was in force between 1819 and 1871 (see Tariff, and Germany: History).
ZOMBOR, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Bács Bodrog, 146 m. S. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 29,036, two-thirds Servians. It is situated in a fertile plain near the Franz Josef canal, which connects the Danube and the Theiss, and is the centre of the corn and cattle trade of an extensive area.
ZONARAS, JOANNES (John) Byzantine chronicler and theologian, flourished at Constantinople in the 12th century. Under Alexius I. Comnenus he held the offices of commander of the bodyguard and private secretary to the emperor, but in the succeeding reign he retired to Hagia Glykeria (one of the Princes' Islands), where he spent the rest of his life in writing books. His most important work, Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν (compendium of history), in eighteen books, extends from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius (1118). The earlier part is largely drawn from Josephus; for Roman history he chiefly followed Dio Cassius, whose first twenty books are not otherwise known to us. His history was continued by Nicetas Acominatus. Various ecclesiastical works have been attributed to Zonaras—commentaries on the Fathers and the poems of Gregory of Nazianzus; lives of Saints; and a treatise on the Apostolical Canons—and there is no reason to doubt their genuineness. The lexicon, however, which has been handed down under his name (ed. J. A. H. Tittmann 1808) is probably the work of a certain Antonius Monachus (Stein’s Herodotus, ii. 479 f.).
Complete edition in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxiv. cxxxv. cxxxvii.; the Chronicon by M. Pinder and T. Büttner-Wobst in the Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz. (1841–97) and by L. Dindorf in the Teubner series (1868–76); see bibliography in C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (2nd ed. 1897).
ZONE (Gr. ζώνη a girdle, from ζωννύναι, to gird), a term for a belt or girdle, now used chiefly in the transferred sense of a demarcated area. Thus the earth’s surface is divided, for classification of climates, into five climatic zones: the two temperate and the two frigid zones and the tropical or torrid zone. (See Climate and Climatology.)
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION (also known as Zoogeography), the science dealing, in the first place, with the distribution of living animals on the surface of the globe (both land and water), and secondly with that of their forerunners (both in time and in space). The science is thus a side-branch of zoology,[1] intimately connected on the one hand with geography and on the other with geology. It is a comparatively modern science, which dates, at all events in its present form, from the second half of the 19th century.
Different parts of the land-surface of the globe are inhabited by different kinds of animals, or, in other words, by different faunas. These differences, in many cases at any rate, are not due to differences of temperature or of climate; and they do not depend on the distance of one place from another. The warm-blooded land-animals of Japan are, for example, very much more closely related to those of the British Isles than is the corresponding fauna of Africa to that of Madagascar. Again, on the hypothesis of the evolution of one species from another, in the case of land-animals unprovided with the means of flight such resemblances and differences between the faunas of different parts of the world depend in a great degree on the presence or absence of facilities for free communication by land between the areas in question. Prima facie, therefore, it is natural to suppose that the fauna of an island will differ more from that of the adjacent continent than will those of different parts of that continent from one another.
To a great extent this is the case; and if the present continents and islands had always been in statu quo, the proposition
