spectacular point of view, and very suitable where most of the animals are young and in process of training. The chief gardens in Holland are at Amsterdam, owned by the society "Natura Artis Magistra." In addition to the menagerie, founded in 1838, and since then remaining one of the chief collections of the world, the Society owns a fine aquarium, and supports a museum and library. The garden at Rotterdam is also of high interest. The zoological collections of other European countries are of little importance.
Certain general remarks may be made on the efficient management of the zoological gardens.
Finance.—Disbursements for rent, rates and taxes naturally vary according to the special conditions; in a large number of cases public land is provided free of cost, and in a smaller number of cases the institutions, in view of their useful public functions, are relieved of the ordinary burden of taxation. In London, where rent, rates and taxes have all to be paid, precisely as if the gardens were a profit-distributing private institution, the annual expenditure under these headings amounts to about £2000. The staff, excluding purely scientific departments, costs about £6000 per annum; gardening department, about £1500 per annum; maintenance of buildings, enclosures, paths and so forth, about £4000 per annum; provisions for animals, about £5000 per annum; litter, water, heating and general menagerie expenses about £3000 per annum. These figures are based chiefly on the London expenditure and relate to a collection which is probably more varied than any other, but not specially large in numbers, containing on an average a little over 3000 individuals. The cost of maintaining the collection depends on the numbers received by purchase, in exchange, or presented, but for an average of about £2000 per annum a collection such as that in London can be adequately maintained. The cost of new buildings varies too much to make any individual figures useful.
Many of the zoological gardens are owned by private companies and derive their income entirely from gate-money, menagerie sales, rent of refreshment rooms, concert-halls and other auxiliary public attractions, any profits being distributed amongst the members of the company. In other cases the gardens are assisted by public authorities, in return for which a certain number of free days are given. In other cases again, as in the case of London, the income is derived partly from the subscriptions of members, who in return receive privilege§ as to admission, and partly from gate-money and menagerie receipts, all the income being expended on the maintenance of the institution and on scientific purposes.
Nature of Collection.—This depends to a certain extent on the object of the institution. The species and varieties of mammals and birds that have a commercial value as farmyard stock or as pets, are for the most part easy to keep, are attractive to the public and may be a source of profit. Some of the smaller gardens in Europe, and perhaps a majority of those in other parts of the world, pay much attention to this side, but the more important collections are as much as possible limited to natural species and wild animals. In theory every wild species has its place in a zoological collection, but the actual choice is limited by so many practical considerations that the better-known collections are remarkably alike. Birds and mammals take the first place; the leading collections devote a good deal of attention to reptiles and batrachians; fishes and aquatic invertebrata are most often to be found only when there are special aquaria, whilst non-aquatic invertebrates are seldom to be seen and at most consist of a few moths and butterflies, spiders, scorpions and centipedes, molluscs and crustaceans. Within these limits, the first choice falls on large and well-known creatures which every one can recognize and desires to see. The large Carnivora, lions, tigers, jaguars and leopards are the first favourites; then follow monkeys, then the large ungulates, elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses, camels and giraffes, deer and antelopes and equine animals, whilst birds are appreciated chiefly for plumage and song. Animals vary very greatly in viability (see Longevity), and practical experience has shown that certain species bear captivity well, whilst others for reasons that appear to be psychological as well as physical quickly succumb. Many animals of great zoological interest, from their nocturnal habits, or natural disposition, display themselves so seldom that their possession is valueless from the point of view of the public, whilst closely allied species are not distinguished except by trained observers. If the object of a collection is simply to provide a hardy and popular exhibition, it is neither difficult nor very costly to get together and to maintain. But if the object be, as in the case of the greater zoological institutions, to get together as many species as possible, and to exhibit animals that have not been hitherto obtained, the possible range is enormous and the cost very great.
Sources of Animals.—A certain number of wild animals are born in captivity and from time to time the possession of a successful stock enables one collection to supply many others. At one time London was able to supply many Continental gardens with giraffes, and Dublin and Antwerp have had great successes with lions, whilst antelopes, sheep and cattle, deer and equine animals are always to be found breeding in one collection or another. Such stocks, however, usually fail in time, partly from too close interbreeding, partly from the ordinary chances of mortality, and partly from the cumulative effects of strange conditions. Fresh-caught wild animals have to be obtained to replenish the stock. In the majority of cases the conditions of success are that the wild creatures should be obtained as young as possible, kept in their native localities until they have become accustomed to man and to such food as they can be given at their ultimate destinations. The percentage of failure is greatest when fresh-caught adults are hurried to Europe or America. Individuals, moreover, vary greatly in their capacity to respond successfully to new conditions of life, and it is less costly and more practical if the selection be made in their natural homes. The most promising sources of new animals for collections are young creatures which have been partly tamed by hunters, traders or natives, and which have been acquired by travellers. Many of these find their way to the great shipping-ports, where there have grown up establishments that trade in wild animals. Occasionally special expeditions are arranged to procure numbers of particular birds or mammals, but these are extremely costly and the mortality is usually high.
Area and Site.—The areas occupied vary from about 300 acres (New York) to about 8 acres (Bristol, England). In the larger gardens, however, the greater part of the space is engaged by a few extensive enclosures for herds of herbivorous animals, and where no attempt is made to associate the function of a game reserve with that of a menagerie a smaller area is quite satisfactory. From the point of view of public convenience, too large a space is fatiguing and makes it more difficult to see the animals, whilst the expenses of maintenance, drainage and supervision increase out of proportion to the advantages. The older gardens have followed too closely the idea of small cages, designed to guard an animal securely rather than to display it in a fitting environment, but if exercise, light and air are provided, animals do better in a relatively small than in a relatively large enclosure. With regard to situation, the ideal would be to have the collection placed in the open country, far from centres of population. But as menageries are supported for the public and in most cases by the public, such a site is impractical, and if the soil, drainage and exposure are reasonably good, experience shows that a thriving collection may be maintained in the immediate vicinity of large towns.
Hygiene.—The first requisite is strict attention to cleanliness. A collection of animals must be compared with public institutions such as barracks, or infirmaries. There must be an abundant supply of fresh air and of water, and a drainage system as complete as possible. The soil of yards and the floors and walls of houses rapidly become contaminated, and the ideal condition would be to have an impermeable flooring covering the whole area, and supplied with suitable layers of sand, sawdust, peat-moss or other absorbent substances which can be changed at frequent intervals. The buildings should be constructed on the most modern hospital lines, with smooth walls and rounded corners, so that complete cleansing and disinfecting are possible. It has been shown abundantly, however, that even the best designed and best cared for buildings rapidly become contaminated, and it is probable that the costly and massive buildings of the more modern Gardens are erroneous in principle, and should be replaced by light and cheap structures not intended to last longer than a few years. In most temperate climates, artificial heating is necessary, at least occasionally, in many cases, but the tendency has been to be more sedulous of warmth than of ventilation. Cold-blooded animals, such as reptiles and batrachians, thrive best in an equable temperature, and, especially in the case of snakes, frequently can be induced to feed only when their temperature has been raised to a certain point. But the vast majority of birds and mammals not only can endure a large range of temperature, but thrive best when they are subjected to it. Protection from violent draught and shelter from extremes of heat and cold are necessary, but in most cases the choice is best left to the animals themselves, and the most successful arrangements consist of free exposure to the open air, with access to warmth and shelter. All collections of living beings are subject to epidemics, and in an ideal menagerie special precautions should be taken. New arrivals should be quarantined, until it is certain that they are in a satisfactory condition of health. Sickly animals should be at once isolated, and their cages and enclosures disinfected, whilst as a matter of routine the enclosure in which any animal has died should be cleansed, and according to the results of post-mortem examination, which should be made in every case, appropriate measures of disinfection employed.
Feeding.—The food must be as varied as possible, and special attention should be given to the frequency and quantity of the supply. It is important that no more should be supplied at a time than is necessary, as most animals rapidly foul their food, and except in a few special cases, wild animals are peculiarly liable to the evil results of stale or putrid substances. Quantities can be learned from experience, and from watching individual cases; frequency varies within very wide limits, from reptiles which at most may feed once a week and fast for long periods, to the smaller insectivorous birds which require to be fed every two or three
