tributary previous to the depression which transformed them into
bays. The land between the drowned valleys is relatively flat,
and varies in height from sea-level on the E. to 150–300 ft. on the
W. border. Passing westward across the “fall-line,” the next
province is the Piedmont, a part of the extensive Piedmont Belt
reaching from Pennsylvania to Alabama. This is the most extensive
of the subdivisions of Virginia, comprising 18,000 sq. m.
of its area, and varying in elevation from 150–300 ft. on the E. to
700–1200 ft. along the foot of the Blue Ridge at the W. The sloping
surface is gently rolling, and has resulted from the uplift and
dissection of a nearly level plain of erosion developed on folded,
crystalline rocks. Occasional hard rock ridges rise to a moderate
elevation above the general level, while areas of unusually weak
Triassic sandstones have been worn down to form lowlands. W of
the Piedmont, and like it consisting of crystalline rocks, is the
Blue Ridge, a mountain belt from 3 to 20 m. in breadth, narrowing
toward the N., where it passes into Maryland, and broadening
southward toward its great expansion in W. North Carolina and
E. Tennessee, where it is transformed into massive mountain groups.
In elevation the Blue Ridge of Virginia varies from 1460 ft. at
Harper's Ferry, where the Potomac river breaks through it in a
splendid water-gap, to 5719 ft. in Mt. Rogers, Grayson county.
About 2500 sq. m. of the state are comprised in this province.
W. of the Blue Ridge is the Newer Appalachian or Great Valley
Province, characterized by parallel ridges and valleys developed
by erosion on folded beds of sandstone, limestone and shales, and
comprising an area of about 10,400 sq. m. in Virginia. The belts
of non-resistant rock have been worn away, leaving longitudinal
valleys separated by hard rock ridges. A portion of this province
in which weak rocks predominate gives an unusually broad valley
region, known as the Valley of Virginia, drained by the Shenandoah
river, and the headwaters of the James, Roanoke, New, and Holston
rivers, which dissect the broad valley floor into gently rolling low
hills. At the N., near the mouth of the Shenandoah, the valley is
about 250 ft. above sea-level, but rises south-westward to an elevation
of more than 1600 ft. at the S. boundary of the state.
The rivers of the state flow in general from N.W. to S.E., across the Blue Ridge, the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain, following courses which were established before erosion had produced much of the present topography. But in the Newer Appalachians the streams more often follow the trend of the structure until they empty into one of the larger, transverse streams. Thus the Shenandoah flows N.E. to the Potomac, the Holston S.W. toward the Tennessee. A part of this same province, in the S.W. part of the state, is drained by the New river, which flows N.W. across the ridges to the Kanawha and Ohio rivers in the Appalachian Plateau. In the limestone regions caverns and natural bridges occur, among which Luray Cavern and the Natural Bridge are well known. The drowned lower courses of the S.E. flowing streams are navigable, and afford many excellent harbours. Chesapeake Bay covers much land that might otherwise be agriculturally valuable, but repays this loss, in part at least, by its excellent fisheries, including those for oysters. In the S.E., where the low, flat Coastal Plain is poorly drained, is the Great Dismal Swamp, a fresh-water marsh covering 700 sq. m ., in the midst of which is Lake Drummond, 2 m. or more in diameter. Along the shores of Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean are low, sandy beaches, often enclosing lagoons or salt marshes.
Fauna.—Till about the middle of the 18th century the bison and the elk roamed the W. part of the state. The Virginia deer is common in the bottom lands; a few beaver still frequent the remoter streams; in the higher portions are still a few black bears and pumas, besides the lynx, the Virginia varying hare, the woodchuck, the red and the fox squirrel and flying squirrels. The grey squirrel is plentiful in wooded districts. On the Coastal Plain are the musk-rat, the eastern cotton-tail, chipmunk, grey fox, common mole and Virginia opossum. In colonial times the Atlantic right-whale was killed in some numbers off the coast.
Many species of water and shore birds migrate along the coast, where also others breed, as the royal, common and least terns and black skimmer; practically all the ducks are migrant species, though the wood-duck breeds. Swan, geese and brant winter on the coast. The yellow-crowned night-heron and the little blue heron nest rarely. The turkey-buzzard and the barn-owl are resident. Red-headed and red-bellied woodpeckers, orchard orioles, yellow winged sparrows, the cardinal, the blue grosbeak, the Carolina wren and the mocking-bird are characteristic of the lower elevations. The ruffed grouse and wild turkey are found in the wooded mountainous districts, while the quail (here called “partridge”) is a game bird of the open stubble fields.
Of reptiles, the rattlesnake and copperhead are the only poisonous species, but numerous harmless varieties are common. In the salt marshes of the coast occurs the diamond-backed terrapin. Trout abound in the mountain streams, and black bass in the rivers of the interior. The cat-fish grows to a large size in the sluggish rivers. On the coast, the striped bass, sea-bass, drum, sheepshead, weakfish, bluefish and Spanish mackerel are important as food fishes. There are valuable oyster fisheries in Chesapeake Bay.
Flora.—The Coastal Plain of Virginia is covered with pine forests which merge westward with the hard woods of the Piedmont Belt, where oaks formerly prevailed, but where a second growth of pine now constitutes part of the forest. Even on the Coastal Plain the Jersey and oldfield pines of to-day replace more valuable species of the original growth. The Blue Ridge and Newer Appalachian regions are covered with pine, hemlock, white oak, cherry and yellow poplar; while that portion of these provinces lying in the S.W. part of the state still contains valuable forests of hickory and walnut, besides oak and cherry. On the Coastal Plain the cypress grows in the Dismal Swamp, river birch along the streams, and sweet gum and black gum in swampy woods. Other characteristic plants of the Coastal Plain are the cranberry, wild rice, wild yam, wax myrtle, wistaria, trumpet flower, passion flower, holly and white alder. Many of these species spread into the Piedmont Belt. Rhododendron, mountain laurel and azaleas are common in the mountains. The blackberry, black raspberry, huckleberry, blueberry, wild ginger and ginseng are widely distributed.
Climate.—The climate of Virginia is generally free from extremes of heat and cold. In the Coastal Plain region the temperature is quite stable from day to day, as a result of the equalizing effect of the numerous bays which indent this province. The mean winter temperature is 39.8°, the mean summer temperature 77.2°, with a mean annual of 58.6°. Killing frosts do not occur before the middle of October, nor later than the last part of April. In the Piedmont Province temperature conditions are naturally less stable, owing to the distance from the sea and to the greater inequality of surface topography. In autumn and winter sudden temperature changes are experienced, though not frequently. The mean winter temperature of this province is 35.8°; mean summer temperature, 75°; mean annual, 55.9°. Killing frosts may occur as early as the first of October and as late as the last of May. The greatest variability in temperature conditions in the state occurs in the Blue Ridge, Newer Appalachian Provinces, where the most rugged and variable topography is likewise found. The mean winter temperature for this section is 33.8°; mean summer temperature, 71.3°, mean annual, 53.2°.
Soil.—Marshy soils are found along the lowest portions of the Coastal Plain, and are exceedingly productive wherever reclaimed by draining, as in portions of the Dismal Swamp. Other portions of the Coastal Plain afford more valuable soils, sandy loams overlying sandy clays. On the higher elevations the soil is light and sandy, and such areas remain relatively unproductive. The crystalline rocks of the Piedmont area are covered with residual soils of variable composition and moderate fertility. Passing the high and rugged Blue Ridge, which is infertile except in the intervening valleys of its S.W. expansion, we reach the Newer Appalachians, where fertile limestone soils cover the valley floors. The Valley of Virginia is the most productive part of the state.
Forests.—The woodland area of Virginia was estimated in 1900 at 23,400 sq. m., or 58% of the area of the state. The timber area originally comprised three divisions: the mountain regions growing pine and hard woods and hemlock; the Piedmont region producing chiefly oaks with some pine; and the lands below the “Fall Line,” which were forested with yellow pine. Most of the pine of the mountain region has been cut, and the yellow pine and hard woods have also largely disappeared. The production of timber has, however, steadily increased. In 1900 the value of the product was $12,137,177, representing chiefly yellow pine.
Fisheries.—Oysters are by far the most valuable of the fisheries products, but, of the 400,000 acres of waters within the state suitable for oyster culture, in 1909 only about one-third was used for that purpose. Next in importance were the catches of menhaden, shad, clams, squeteague and alewives; while minor catches were made of crabs, croaker, bluefish, butter fish, catfish, perch and spotted and striped bass.
Agriculture.—Tobacco was an important crop in the earlier history of the colony, and Virginia continued to be the leading tobacco-producing state of the Union (reporting in 1850 28.4% of the total crop) until after the Civil War, which, with the division of the state, caused it to fall into second place, Kentucky taking the lead; and in 1900 the crop of North Carolina also was larger. The state's production of tobacco in 1909 was 120,125,000 ℔, valued at $10,210,625.
The production of Indian corn in 1909 was 47,328,000 bus., valued at $35,023,000; of wheat, 8,848,000 bus., valued at $10,175,000; of oats, 3,800,000 bus., valued at $2,052,000; of rye, 184,000 bus., valued at $155,000; of buckwheat, 378,000 bus., valued at $287,000; the hay crop was valued at $8,060,000 (606,000 tons). The amount of the cotton crop in 1909 was 10,000 500-℔ bales.
The value of horses in 1910 was $34,561,000 (323,000 head); of mules, $7,020,000 (54,000 head); of neat cattle, $20,034,000 (875,000 head); of swine, $5,031,000 (774,000 head); of sheep, $2,036,000 (522,000 head).
Minerals.—The value of all mineral products in 1908 was $13,127,395. By far the most valuable single product was bituminous coal ($3,868,524; 4,259,042 tons). The existence of this mineral in the vicinity of Richmond was known as early as 1770, and the mining of it there began in 1775, but it was practically
