82–80 B.C. As a result of its resistance Sulla carried a law for the
confiscation of the land of those inhabitants of Volaterrae who had
had the privileges of Roman citizenship. This, however, docs not
seem to have been carried out until Caesar as dictator divided some
of the territory of Volaterrae among his veterans. Among its noble
families the chief was that of the Caecinae, who took their name
from the river which runs close to Volaterrae and still retains the
name Cecina. Cicero defended one of its members in an extant
speech. It is included by Pliny among the municipal towns of
Etruria. In the 12th and 13th centuries it enjoyed free institutions;
in 1361 it tell under the power of Florence. It rebelled, but was
retaken and pillaged in 1472. Persius the satirist and the painter
Daniele da Volterra were both natives of the town. Several works
of the latter are preserved there.
See C. Ricci, Volterra (Bergamo, 1905); E. Bormann in Corp. Inscr. Latin, xi. (Berlin, 1888), p. 324; G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), ii. 136. (T. As.)
VOLTMETER, an instrument for measuring difference of electric potential (see Electrostatics) in terms of the unit called a volt. The volt (so called after A. Volta) is defined to be difference of potential which acting between the terminals of a resistance of one ohm sends through it a continuous current of one ampere. A voltmeter is therefore one form of electrometer (q.v.), but the term is generally employed to describe the instrument which indicates on a scale, not merely in arbitrary units but directly in volts, the potential difference of its terminals. Voltmeters may be divided into two classes, (a) electrostatic, (b) electrokinetic.
Electrostatic voltmeters are based on the principle that when two
conductors are at different potentials they attract one another
with a force which varies as the square of the potential difference
(P. D.) between them. This mechanical stress may be made the
measure of the P. D. between them, if one of the conductors is fixed
while the other is movable, this last being subject to a constraint
due to a spring or to gravity, means being also provided for measuring
either the displacement of the movable conductor against the
constraint or the force required to hold it in a fixed position relatively
to the fixed conductor. One large class of electrostatic voltmeters
consists of a fixed metal plate or plates and a movable plate or plates,
the two sets of plates forming a condenser (see Leyden Jar). The
movable system is suspended or pivoted, and when a P. D. is created
between the fixed and movable plates, the latter are drawn into a
new position which is resisted by the torque of a wire or by the force
due to a weight. Utilizing this principle many inventors have
devised forms of electrostatic voltmeter. One of the best known
of these is Lord Kelvin's multicellular voltmeter. In this instrument
(fig. 1) there are two sets of fixed metal plates, connected
Fig. 1.—Lord Kelvin's Multicellular Electrostatic Voltmeter.
together and having a quadrantal shape, that is, approximately
the shape of a quarter of a circular disk. In the space between
them is suspended a "needle" which consists of a light aluminium
axis, to which are affixed a number of paddle-shaped aluminium
blades. This needle is suspended by a fine platinum silver wire,
and its normal position is such that the aluminium paddle blades
are just outside the quadrantal-shaped plates. If the needle is
connected to one terminal of a circuit, and the fixed plates or cells
to the other member of the circuit, and a difference of potential
is created between them, then the movable needle is drawn in so
that the aluminium blades are more included between the fixed
plates. This movement is resisted by the torsional elasticity of
the suspending wire, and hence a fixed indicating needle attached
to the movable system can be made to indicate directly on a scale
the difference of potential between the terminals of the instrument
in volts. Instruments of this kind have been constructed not only
by Lord Kelvin, but also by W. E. Ayrton and others, for measuring
voltages from 10,000 volts down to 1 volt. In other types
of electrostatic instruments the movable system rotates round a
horizontal axis or rests upon knife edges like a scale beam; in others
again the movable system is suspended by a wire. In the former
case the control is generally due to gravity, the plates being so
balanced on the knife edge that they tend to take up a certain
fixed position from which they are constrained when the electric
forces come into play, their displacement relatively to the fixed
plates being shown on a scale and thus indicating the P. D. between
them. In the case of high tension voltmeters, the movable plate
takes the form of a single plate of paddle shape, and for extra high
tensions it may simply be suspended from the end of a balanced
arm; or the movable system may take the form of a cylinder
which is suspended within, but not touching, another fixed cylinder,
the relative position being such that the electric forces draw the
suspended cylinder more into the fixed one. Electrostatic
voltmeters are now almost entirely used for the measurement of high
voltages from 2000 to 50,000 volts employed in electrotechnics.
For such purposes the whole of the working parts are contained in a
metal case, the indicating needle moving over a divided scale which
is calibrated to show directly the potential difference in volts of
the terminals of the instrument. One much-used electrostatic
voltmeter of this type is the Kelvin multicellular vertical pattern
voltmeter (fig. 2). For use at the switch-boards of electric supply
Fig. 2.—Round Dial Kelvin Multicellular Electrostatic Voltmeter, 5-in. scale. For high pressure.
stations the instrument takes
another form known as the
"edge-wise" pattern.
Another class of voltmeters comprises the electrokinetic voltmeters. In these instruments the potential difference between two points is measured by the electric current produced in a wire connecting to two points. In any case of potential difference measurement it is essential not to disturb the potential difference being measured; hence it follows that in electrokinetic voltmeters the wire connecting the two points of which the potential difference is to be measured must be of very high resistance. The instrument then simply becomes an ammeter of high resistance, and may take any of the forms of practically used ammeters (see Amperemeter). Electromagnetic voltmeters may therefore be thermal, electromagnetic or electrodynamic.
As a rule, electromagnetic voltmeters are only suitable for the measurement of relatively small potentials—0 to 200 or 300 volts. Numerous forms of hot-wire or thermal voltmeter have been devised. In that known as the Cardew voltmeter, a fine platinum-silver wire, having a resistance of about 300 ohms, is stretched in a tube or upon a frame contained in a tube. This frame or tube is so constructed of iron and brass (one-third iron and two-thirds brass) that its temperature coefficient of linear expansion is the same as that of the platinum silver alloy. The fine wire is fixed to one end of the tube or frame by an insulated support and the other end is attached to a motion multiplying gear. As the frame has the same linear expansion as the wire, external changes of the temperature will not affect their relative length, but if the fine wire is heated by the passage of an electric current, its expansion will move the indicating needle over the scale, the motion being multiplied by the gear. In the Hartmann and Braun form of hot-wire voltmeter, the fine wire is fixed between two supports, and the expansion produced when a current is passed through it causes the wire to sag down, the sag being multiplied by a gear and made to move an indicating needle over a scale. In this case, the actual working wire, being short, must be placed in series with an additional high resistance. Hot wire voltmeters, like electrostatic voltmeters, are suitable for use with alternating currents of any frequency as well as with continuous currents, since their indications depend upon the heating power of the current, which is proportional to the square of the current and therefore to the square of the difference of potential between the terminals.
Electromagnetic voltmeters consist of a coil of fine wire connected to the terminals of the instrument, and the current produced in that wire by a difference of potential between the terminals creates a magnetic field proportional at any point to the strength of the current. This magnetic field may be made to cause a displacement
