the S.E., a little W. of the 119th parallel), the Spokane (in the east
central part) and the Pend Oreille (on the N. boundary) are its
principal tributaries from the E.; the Yakima (a little above the
mouth of the Snake) from the W.; and the Okanogan (in the north
central part of the state), from the N. A portion of the Puget
Sound Basin and a portion of the Coast range are drained by the
Chehalis river, which has cut a channel through the Coast range and
discharges into Gray's Harbour. The W. slope of the Cascades,
most of the E. slope of the Olympics and the N. portion of the
Puget Sound Basin are drained by a great number of small rivers
into the Puget Sound; and the W. slope of the Olympics and Coast
range is drained by several other small rivers into the Pacific. On
the Cascade Mountains, at the heads of streams, are a number of
lakes of glacial origin, the largest of which is Lake Chelan on the E.
slope in Chelan county. This is nearly 60 m. in length, and from
1 to 4 m. wide. At the upper end it is about 1400 ft. deep, but it is
shallow at the lower end where the water is held back by a morainal
dam, and where only 312 m. from the Columbia river it is about
400 ft. above the level of the river. There are also several alkali lakes or chains of alkali lakes in the coulees on the Columbia plateau.
Fauna.—Many species of wild animals still inhabit the state, but the number of each species has been much reduced. The caribou, moose, antelope, mountain sheep, beaver, otter and mink are scarce. Few elk are found except in the inaccessible districts on the Olympic Mountains. White- and black-tailed deer and black bear inhabit the densest forests. Mountain goats are quite numerous on the Cascades. The destruction of cougars, lynx (wildcats), coyotes and wolves is encouraged by bounties. Coyotes and jack-rabbits are the most numerous denizens of the Columbia plain. Musk-rats and skunks are numerous west of the Cascades. The blue grouse and partridge are the principal game birds. The sage-hen is common on the Columbia plain. The Japanese pheasant and the California quail have increased in numbers under the protection of the state. Among other game birds are prairie-chickens, ducks, geese, swan, brant, sandhill crane and snipe. The speckled trout, which abounds in nearly all of the mountain streams and lakes, is the principal game fish. Other freshwater fish are the perch, black bass, pike, pickerel and white fish. There are large quantities of salmon in the lower Columbia river, in Gray's and Willapa harbours, and in Puget Sound; oyster fisheries in Gray's and Willapa harbours and in Puget Sound; cod, perch, flounders, smelt, herring and sardines in these and other salt waters. For all the more desirable game a close season has been established by the state.
Flora.—The Puget Sound Basin and the neighbouring slopes of the Cascade and Olympic Mountains are noted for their forests, consisting mainly of giant Douglas fir or Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), but containing also some cedar, spruce and hemlock, a smaller representation of a few other species and a dense undergrowth. Near the Pacific Coast the forests consist principally of hemlock, cedar and Sitka spruce. At an elevation of about 3000 ft. on the W. slope of the Cascades the red fir ceases to be the dominant tree, and between this elevation and the region of perpetual snow, on a few of the highest peaks, rise a succession of forest zones containing principally: (1) yellow pine, red and yellow fir, white fir and cedar; (2) lodge pole pine, white pine, Engelmann spruce and yew; (3) sub alpine fir, lovely fir, noble fir, Mertens hemlock, Alaska cedar and tamarack; (4) white-bark pine, Patton hemlock, alpine larch and creeping juniper. Deciduous trees and shrubs are represented in western Washington by comparatively small numbers of maple, alder, oak, cottonwood, willow, ash, aspen, birch, dogwood, sumach, thornapple, wild cherry, chokecherry, elder, huckleberry, blueberry, blackberry, raspberry, gooseberry and grape. The E. slope of the Cascades and most of the Okanogan Highlands are clothed with light forests consisting chiefly of yellow pine, but containing also Douglas fir, cedar, larch, tamarack and a very small amount of oak. In the eastern part of the Okanogan Highlands there is some western white pine, and here, too, larch is most abundant. The Columbia plain is for the most part treeless and, except where irrigated, grows principally bunch-grass or, in its lower and more arid parts, sagebrush. In the forest regions of eastern Washington the underbrush is light, but grasses and a great variety of flowering plants abound.
Climate.—In western Washington, where the ocean greatly influences the temperature and the mountains condense the moisture of vapour-bearing winds, the climate is equable and moist. Eastern Washington, too, usually has a mild temperature, but occasionally some regions in this part of the state are visited by a continental extreme, and as the winds from the ocean lose most of their moisture in passing over the Cascades, the climate is either dry or arid according to elevation. Along the coast the temperature is rarely above 92° F. or below 10° F.; the mean temperature for July is about 60°, for January 40°, and for the entire year 50°. In the Puget Sound Basin an occasional cold east wind during a dry period in winter causes the temperature to fall below zero. At Centralia, in the Chehalis Valley, the temperature has risen as high as 102°. But the mean temperature for January is 34° in the N. portion of the basin and 40° in the S. portion; for July it is 60° in the north and 65° in the south; and for the entire year it is 46° in the north and 52° in the south. During April and October the temperatures in eastern Washington are nearly the same as those in western Washington, but during July the temperatures in eastern Washington are subject to a range from 40° to 110°, and during January from 65° to −30°. However, the climate is so dry in eastern Washington that the “sensible” variations are much less than those recorded by the thermometer. In the south-eastern counties the winters are mild, with the exception of an occasional cold period, and the summers are hot. The rainfall on the W. slope of the Olympic, Coast range and Cascade Mountains is from 60 to 120 in. annually, and in the Puget Sound Basin it is from 25 to 60 in., it being least on the N.E. or leeward side of the Olympics. About three fourths of the rain in western Washington falls during the wet season from November to April inclusive. On the Okanogan Highlands, on the eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountains, on the Blue Mountains and on the elevated portion of the Columbia Plain which comprises the E. border counties, the annual rainfall and melted snow amount to from 12 to 24 in., but in the southern half of eastern Washington the Columbia river flows through a wide district of low elevation, where the rainfall and melted snow amount to only 6 to 12 in. a year, and where there is scarcely any precipitation during the summer months. There is a heavy snowfall in winter on the mountains, and in a large portion of eastern Washington the average annual snowfall is 40 in. or more. Along the coast the prevailing winds blow from the west or south; in the Puget Sound Basin from the south, and in eastern Washington from the south-west, except in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, where they are north-west. During summer the winds are very moderate in western Washington, but during winter they occasionally blow with great violence. In eastern Washington hot winds from the north or east are occasionally injurious to the growing wheat in June or July. Light hailstorms are not uncommon, but tornadoes are unknown in the state.
Soils.—The soils of western Washington are chiefly glacial, those of eastern Washington chiefly volcanic. In the low tidewater district of the Puget Sound Basin an exceptionally productive soil has been made by the mixture of river silt and sea sand. In numerous depressions, some of which may have been the beds of lakes formed by beaver dams, the soil is deep and largely of vegetable formation. In the valleys of rivers which have overflowed their banks and on level bench lands there is considerable silt and vegetable loam mixed with glacial clay; but on the hills and ridges of western Washington the soil is almost wholly a glacial deposit consisting principally of clay but usually containing some sand and gravel. On the Columbia plateau the soil is principally volcanic ash and decomposed lava; it is almost wholly volcanic ash in the more arid sections, but elsewhere more decomposed lava or other igneous rocks, and some vegetable loam is mixed with the ash. On the E. slope of the Cascades and on the Okanogan Highlands glacial deposits of clay, gravel or sand, as well as vegetable loam, are mixed with the volcanic substances.
Fisheries.—Washington's many waterways, both fresh and salt, and especially those which indent or are near the coast, make the fisheries resources of great value. The catch and canning of salmon are particularly important. In 1905 the value of canned salmon was $2,431,605 (26,601,429 ℔).
Forests.—In 1907 the estimated area of standing timber in Washington was 11,720 sq. m. besides that included in national forest reserves. The forest reserves are included in ten national parks, named the Chelan, Columbia, Colville, Kaniksu, Olympic, Ranier, Snoqualmie, Washington, Wanaha and Wenatchee, the Chelan being the largest, with an area of 2,492,500 acres. The aggregate area of these parks (all of which were opened in 1907 and 1908) is 18,850.7 sq. m., or about three-elevenths of the total area of the state.
Irrigation.—The principal Federal irrigation undertakings in 1910 were known as the “Okanogan project” and the “Yakima project.” The former (authorized in 1905) provided for the irrigation of about 10,000 acres in Okanogan county by means of two reservoirs of an aggregate area of 650 acres, main canals and main laterals 20 m. long and small laterals 30 m. long, the water being taken from the Salmon river. In 1909 about 3000 acres in this project were watered and under cultivation. The Yakima project involved the irrigation of about 600,000 acres by means of five reservoirs of an aggregate area of 804,000 acre-feet, and was undertaken by the United States government in 1905.
Agriculture.—The development of the agricultural resources of Washington was exceedingly rapid after 1880. The wheat crop in 1909 was 35,780,000 bushels, valued at $33,275,000; oats, 9,898,000 bushels, valued at $4,751,000; barley, 7,189,000 bushels, valued at $4,601,000; rye, 84,000 bushels, valued at $79,000; Indian corn, 417,000 bushels, valued at $359,000. The principal wheat-producing region is the south-eastern part of the state. Western Washington has large hay crops; in the E. part of the state much alfalfa is grown, especially in Yakima county. In W. Washington peas are raised for forage.
Vegetable crops are successfully grown in low alluvial lands of the W. part of the state, and on the irrigated volcanic ash lands E. of the mountains. Apple-growing and the raising of other fruits have increased rapidly. Small fruits are more successful in the W. part of the state. Grapes are grown on the mountain sides, cranberries on the bog lands near the coast, and nuts in the S.E. parts.
Live-stock and dairy products are important factors in the
