and some little distance east of Brough under Stainmore a small patch of Coal Measures remains. At the base of the Carboniferous rocks in this county is a red conglomeratic deposit, the lower part of which may be regarded as of Old Red Sandstone age; it may be traced from Ullswater through Butterwick, Rasgill and Tebay, and it appears again at Sedbergh, Barton and around Kendal. In the limestones on the east side of the Eden the Great Whin Sill, a diabase dike, may be followed for a considerable distance. In the Eden valley two sets of red sandstones occur, that on the western side is of Permian age and includes the conglomerate beds known as “brockram.” The Permian extends as a belt from 4 to 2 m. wide between Penrith, Appleby and Kirkby Stephen. The sandstone on the eastern side of the valley is of Bunter age. The eastern side of the valley is strongly faulted so that small patches of Ordovician and Silurian rocks appear all along the margin of the Carboniferous limestone. Evidences of glaciation are abundant in the form of morainic accumulations and transported or striated blocks.
Climate and Agriculture.—The rainfall is very heavy, especially in the western part (see Lake District), whence it diminishes eastward. Thus at Kendal, on the eastern flank of the Lake District, the mean annual rainfall is still as high as 48.71 in., whereas at Appleby in the Eden valley it is only 32.45 in. The greater part of the county may, however, be considered to lie within an area having 40 to 60 in. mean annual fall. The average temperature in January at Appleby is 35.8° F., but at Windermere it is 37.4°. The summer temperature is mild; thus at the same two points 58.4° and 58.7° are recorded. The principal characteristic of the climate is the preponderance of cloudy, wet and cold days, especially in the spring and autumn,—combining to retard the growth of vegetation. The late stay of cold winds in the spring has much to do with the same especially in the lowlands extending along the foot of the Cross Fell escarpment from Brough north-westwards. The helm-wind (q.v.) is characteristic of this district. Scarcely one-half of the total area of the county is under cultivation, and of this acreage about five sixths is in permanent pasture, both cattle and sheep being largely kept. Large portions of the valleys are well wooded. Nearly the whole of the acreage under corn crops is occupied by oats; a little barley is grown, but the wheat crop is insignificant. About three-fourths of the acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips. The meadow-land yields excellent grass. Grass of inferior value characterizes the pasture-lands; while on the fell (or unenclosed) land, except in limestone areas, the herbage consists chiefly of the coarser kinds of grass, bents and heather. These, however, furnish nourishment for the hardier breeds of sheep, which are pastured there in large numbers. It is from the sale of these, of their stock cattle, horses and pigs, and of their dairy produce that the staple of the farmers' income is derived. A large part of Westmorland was formerly in the hands of “statesmen” (see Cumberland) whose holdings were Usually of small extent, but were sufficient, with careful management, for the respectable maintenance of themselves and their families. The proportion of landowners of this class has greatly decreased.
Manufactures.—The manufacturing industries, owing to the absence of any large supplies of native fuel, are not numerous. The principal is woollen manufacture in one form or another, and this is chiefly confined to the low country in and near Kendal. Bobbin-making, the manufacture of explosives, fulling, snuff-grinding and several small industries are carried on, and use the water-power available at so many points. Paper-making is also carried on. The quarries occupy a considerable number of hands at various points, as in the case of the green slate quarries which are detrimental to the scenery in the lower part of Langdale.
Communications.—The main line of the London and North-Western railway from the south serves Oxenholme (branch to Kendal and Windermere), Low Gill (branch to Ingleton in Yorkshire), and Tebay, leaving the county after surmounting the heavy gradient at Shap. The Midland main line, with a parallel course, serves Appleby. A branch of the North Eastern system from Darlington serves Kirkby Stephen and Tebay, and another branch connects Kirkby Stephen with Appleby and Penrith.
Population and Administration.—The area of the ancient county is 503,160 acres, with a population in 1891 of 66,098 and in 1901 of 64,303. The natives are prevalently tall, wiry, long-armed, big-handed, dark-grey-eyed and fresh-coloured. In disposition they are cautious, reserved and unemotional and thrifty beyond measure. The general character of the dialects of Westmorland is that of a basis of Anglian speech, influenced to a certain extent by the speech current amongst the non-Anglian peoples of Strathclyde. This is overlaid to a much greater though variable extent by the more decidedly Scandinavian forms of speech introduced at various periods between the 10th and the 12th centuries. Three well-marked dialects can be made out.
The area of the administrative county is 505,330 acres. The county contains four wards (corresponding to hundreds). The municipal boroughs are Appleby, the county town (pop. 1764) and Kendal (14,183). The urban districts are Ambleside (2536), Bowness and Windermere (5061), Grasmere (781), Kirkby Lonsdale (1638) and Shap (1226). The county is in the northern circuit, and assizes are held at Appleby. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into five petty sessional divisions. The borough of Kendal has a separate commission of the peace. There are 115 civil parishes. Westmorland is in the diocese of Carlisle, and contains 86 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. There are two parliamentary divisions. Northern or Appleby and Southern or Kendal, each returning one member.
History.—The earliest English settlements in the district which is now Westmorland were effected by the Angian tribes who entered Yorkshire by the Humber in the 6th century and laid the foundations of the kingdom of Deira, which included within its bounds that portion of Westmorland afterwards known as the barony of Kendal. The northern district, corresponding to the later barony of Appleby, meanwhile remained unconquered, and it was not until the close of the 7th century that Ecgfrith drove out the native Britons and established the Northumbrian supremacy over the whole district. With the Danish invasions of the 9th century the Kendal district was included in the Danelaw, while the barony of Appleby formed a portion of the land of Carlisle. The first mention of Westmorland in the Saxon Chronicle occurs under 966, when it was harried by Thored son of Gunnar, the term here applying only to the barony of Appleby, which at this period was being extensively colonized by Norwegian settlers, traces of whose occupation are especially noticeable in the place-names of the Lake District,
The Domesday Survey describes only the barony of Kendal which appears as part of Amounderness in Yorkshire. Before the Conquest it had formed part of the earldom of Tostig of Northumbria, and had been bestowed by William I. on Roger of Poitou, but, owing to the forfeiture of his estates by the latter, at the time of the survey it was in the hands of the crown. The annexation of the northern portion of Westmorland to the crown of England was accomplished by William Rufus, who in 1092 drove out Dolfin from the land of Carlisle, and fortified Brough-under-Stainmore, Brougham, Appleby and Pendragon. In the reign of Henry I. the barony of Appleby was included in the grant to Ranulph Meschin of the earldom of Carlisle, but on the accession of Ranulph to the earldom of Chester in 1120 it was surrendered to the crown, and its inclusion in the pipe roll of 1131 shows that Westmorland was now definitely established on the administrative basis of an English county.
The barony of Kendal was held in the 12th century by the Mowbrays, and from them passed to the family of Lancaster, who held it as of the honour of Westmorland. In the 13th century it was separated into two moieties; the Lindsay moiety which passed from the Lindsays to the Copelands and Coucys and in the reign of Henry VI. to the Beauforts and Richmonds, whence was derived its later name of Richmond Fee; the Brus moiety, which became subdivided into the Marquis Fee held by the Parr family, ancestors of Katherine Parr, and the Lumley Fee which passed from the Thwengs to the Lumleys and Hothams. The barony of Appleby, with the hereditary shrievalty was bestowed by King John on the family of Veteripont, from whom it passed by female descent to the Cliffords in the 13th century, and in the 16th century to the Tuftons, afterwards earls of Thanet, who retained the dignity until their descendant, Mr Barham of Trecwn, yielded his rights to the crown.
The division of Westmorland into wards originated with the system of defence against the inroads of the Scots, each barony being divided into two wards, and each ward placed under a high constable, who presided over the wards to be maintained at certain fords and other appointed places. The barony of Kendal was divided into Kendal and Lonsdale wards, and the barony of Appleby, called the Bottom, into east and west wards, there being anciently a middle ward between these last two. The shire court and assizes for the county were held at Appleby.
The barony of Appleby was included in the diocese of York from the 7th century, and in 1291 formed the deaneries of
