a nest of freebooters, and it was only in 1878 that the Turks, after a long conflict, were enabled to station troops in a fort above the town. In 1890 there was a serious revolt, from the worst consequences of which the town was saved by the intercession of the British consul at Aleppo warned in time by the devoted energy of T. Christie, American missionary at Marash; and in 1895, after the Armenian massacres had commenced elsewhere, the people again rose, seized the fort, and, after holding out for more than three mouths against a large Turkish force, secured honourable terms of peace on the mediation of the consuls of the Powers at Aleppo. The inhabitants seem to be abandoning their robber customs and devoting themselves to oil and silk culture. In consequence transit trade through the passes of eastern Taurus (see Marash), long almost annihilated by fear of the Zeitunli marauders, revived considerably. The governor must be a Christian, and certain other privileges are secured to the Zeitunlis during their good behaviour. (D. G. H.)
ZEITZ, a town of Germany, in the extreme south of the Prussian province of Saxony, pleasantly situated on a hill on the Weisse (White) Elster, 28 m. by rail S.S.W. of Leipzig on the line to Gera, and with branches to Altenburg and Weissenfels. Pop. (1885) 19,797; (1900) 27,391. The river is here crossed by two iron bridges, and one stone and one timber bridge, and the upper and lower towns are connected by a funicular railway. The Gothic abbey church dates from the 15th century, but its Romanesque crypt from the 12th. The old Franciscan monastery, now occupied by a seminary, contains a library of 20,000 volumes. Just outside the town rises the Moritzburg, built in 1564 by the dukes of Saxe-Zeitz, on the site of the bishop's palace; it is now a reformatory and poorhouse. Zeitz has manufactures of cloth, cottons and other textiles, machinery, wax-cloth, musical instruments, vinegar, cigars, &c.; and wood-carving, dyeing and calico-printing are carried on. In the neighbourhood there are considerable deposits of lignite, and mineral-oil works.
Zeitz is an ancient place of Slavonic origin. From 968 till 1028 it was the seat of a bishopric, afterwards removed to Naumburg, 15½ m. to the N.W., and styled Naumburg-Zeitz. In 1564 the last Roman Catholic bishop died, and his dominions were thenceforward administered by princes of Saxony. From 1653 till 1718 Zeitz was the capital of the dukes of Saxe-Zeitz or Sachsen-Zeitz. It thereafter remained in the possession of the electors of Saxony until 1815, when it passed to Prussia.
See Rothe, Aus der Geschichte der Stadt Zeitz (Zeitz, 1876); and Lange, Chronik des Bisthums Naumburg (Naumburg, 1891).
ZELLER, EDUARD (1814-1908), German philosopher, was born at Kleinbottwar in Württemberg on the 22nd of January 1814, and educated at the university of Tübingen and under the influence of Hegel. In 1840 he was Privatdozent of theology at Tübingen, in 1847 professor of theology at Bern, in 1849 professor of theology at Marburg, migrating soon afterwards to the faculty of philosophy as the result of disputes with the Clerical party. He became professor of philosophy at Heidelberg in 1862, removed to Berlin in 1872, and retired in 1895. His great work is his Philosophie der Griechen (1844-52). This book he continued to amplify and improve in the light of further research; the last edition appeared in 1902. It has been translated into most of the European languages and became the recognized text-book of Greek philosophy. He wrote also on theology, and published three volumes of philosophical essays. He was also one of the founders of the Theologische Jahrbücher, a periodical which acquired great importance as the exponent of the historical method of David Strauss and Christian Baur. Like most of his contemporaries he began with Hegelianism, but subsequently he developed a system on his own lines. He saw the necessity of going back to Kant in the sense of demanding a critical reconsideration of the epistemological problems which Kant had made but a partially successful attempt to solve. None the less his merits as an original thinker are far outshone by his splendid services to the history of philosophy. It is true that his view of Greek thought is somewhat warped by Hegelian formalism. He is not alive enough to the very intimate relation which thought holds to national life and to the idiosyncrasy of the thinker. He lays too much stress upon the “concept,” and explains too much by the Hegelian antithesis of subjective and objective. Nevertheless his history of Greek philosophy remains a noble monument of solid learning informed with natural sagacity. He received the highest recognition, not only from philosophers and learned societies all over the world, but also from the emperor and the German people. In 1894 the Emperor William II made him a “Wirklicher Geheimrat” with the title of “Excellenz,” and his bust, with that of Helmholtz, was set up at the Brandenburg Gate near the statues erected to the Emperor and Empress Frederick. He died on the 19th of March 1908.
The Philosophie der Griechen has been translated into English by S. F. Alleyne (2 vols., 1881) in sections: S. F. Alleyne, Hist. of Gk. Phil. to the time of Socrates (1881); O. J. Reichel, Socrates and the Socratic Schools (1868; 2nd ed. 1877); S. F. Alleyne and A. Goodwin, Plato and the Older Academy (1876); Costelloe and Muirhead, Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics (1897); O. J . Reichel, Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics (1870 and 1880); S. F. Alleyne, Hist. of Eclecticism in Gk. Phil. (1883). The Philosophie appeared in an abbreviated form as Grundriss d. Gesch. d. Griech. Philos. (1883, 5th ed. 1898); Eng. trans, by Alleyne and Evelyn Abbott (1866), under the title, Outlines of the Hist. of Gk. Philos. Among his other works are:—Platonische Studien (1839); Die Apostelgeschichte krit. untersucht (1854; Eng. trans, J. Dare, 1875-76); Entwickelung d. Monotheismus bei d. Griech. (1862); Gesch. d. christlich. Kirche (1898); Gesch. d. deutsch Philos. seit Leibniz (1873, ed. 1875); Staat und Kirche (1873); Strauss in seinen Leben und Schriften (1874; Eng. trans. 1874); Über Bedeutung und Aufgabe d. Erkenntniss-Theorie (1862); Über teleolog. und mechan. Naturerklärung (1876); Vorträge und Abhandlungen (1865-84); Religion und Philosophie bei den Römern (1866, ed. 1871); Philosoph. Aufsätze (1887).
ZEMARCHUS (fl. 568), Byzantine general and traveller. The Turks, by their conquest of Sogdiana in the middle of the 6th century, gained control of the silk trade which then passed through Central Asia into Persia. But the Persian king, Chosroes Nushirvan, dreading the intrusion of Turkish influence, refused to allow the old commerce to continue, and the Turks after many rebuffs consented to a suggestion made by their mercantile subjects of the Soghd, and in 568 sent an embassy to Constantinople to form an alliance with the Byzantines and “transfer the sale of silk to them.” The offer was accepted by Justin II., and in August 568, Zemarchus the Cilician, “General of the cities of the East,” left Byzantium for Sogdiana. The embassy was under the guidance of Maniakh, “chief of the people of Sogdiana,” who had first, according to Menander Protector, suggested to Dizabul (Dizaboulos, the Bu Min khan of the Turks, the Mokan of the Chinese), the great khan of the Turks, this “Roman” alliance, and had himself come to Byzantium to negotiate the same. On reaching the Sogdian territories the travellers were offered iron for sale, and solemnly exorcised; Zemarchus was made to “pass through the fire” (i.e. between two fires), and strange ceremonies were performed over the baggage of the expedition, a bell being rung and a drum beaten over it, while flaming incense-leaves were carried round it, and incantations muttered in “Scythian.” After these precautions the envoys proceeded to the camp of Dizabul (or rather of Dizabul's successor, Bu Min khan having just died) “in a hollow encompassed by the Golden Mountain,” apparently in some locality of the Altai. They found the khan surrounded by astonishing barbaric pomp—gilded thrones, golden peacocks, gold and silver plate and silver animals, hangings and clothing of figured silk. They accompanied him some way on his march against Persia, passing through Talas or Turkestan in the Syr Daria valley, where Hsüan Tsang, on his way from China to India sixty years later, met with another of Dizabul's successors. Zemarchus was present at a banquet in Talas where the Turkish kagan and the Persian envoy exchanged abuse; but the Byzantine does not seem to have witnessed actual fighting. Near the river Oēkh (Syr Daria?) he was sent back to Constantinople with a Turkish embassy and with
