furthering his ideas. Its editor was Dubarry, formerly of the Bataille, and in general the paper stood far to the Left. The radicalism and pacificism of the Bonnet Rouge, with which M. Caillaux' name had also been associated, were even more pro- nounced, and a series of sensational revelations was followed by a press campaign by papers of the Right, the burden of whose charges was that the paper was in German pay, which ended with the death in prison, in Aug. 1917, of the editor, Almeyreda, a former anarchist. Equally sensational revelations were made concerning the alleged German attempt during the war to buy Le Journal from the French senator, Charles Humbert, who acquired control in 1915 and acted as economic and financial editor until Dec. 1917. This scandal ultimately ended in the execution of the principal German agent in the affair, Bolo Pasha.
Apart from the papers mentioned the principal French news- papers founded during the war were the Journal du Peuple, a weekly paper from Feb. 1916 to Jan. 1917, when it became a daily; Le Populaire du Centre, a weekly published at Limoges, turned into a daily in April 1918, under the editorship of the Socialist leader, Jean Longuet. Both of these papers represented the minority Socialists, that is to say, the Zimmerwaldian or anti-Nationalist view. The patriotic Socialist group founded La France Libre in 1918; and in Sept. of that year there was established the extreme Nationalist Democratie Nouvelle, a paper which distinguished itself for its violent anti-German campaign and advocacy of further occupation of German territory in 1920 and 1921.
Among French reviews the Revue des Deux Mondes, the Mercure de France (monthly instead of fortnightly), the Revue Hebdoma- daire and Le Correspondant appeared throughout the war. The important literary review Nouvelle Revue Fran^aise, in which works of leading writers such as Paul Claudel first appeared, was forced to suspend publication, but reappeared after the establishment of peace. In 1920 was established the Nationalist review La Revue Universelle, and in 1921 La Revue de France.
AUTHORITIES. A. de Chambure, A Travers la Presse (Paris, 1914) ; Annuaire de la Presse franc.aise et etrangere et du Monde Po- litique (Paris, 1920) ; private information.
(4) GERMANY. The practice which Bismarck began of maintaining close relations with certain German papers and using them to further his policy was continued under Caprivi, who even extended it, since, although Bismarck confined his attention to papers of the Right, his successor on occasion used the Democratic papers. It is true that, apart from the official Reichs- anzeiger (corresponding to the London Gazette), the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung was the only openly acknowledged govern- mental paper, but numerous other papers were constantly to be found expressing Government policy in their columns. This was brought about, when the occasion demanded, by the supply of material for articles from the particular Government department concerned. The Foreign Office, although playing by far the most important part in this inspiration of the press, was not by any means the only Government department with a newspaper side to its organization.
This system, by which all leading departments of State were kept in touch with the press, was greatly extended after the out- break of the World War. The institution of the censorship and the penalties which attended the infraction of the regulations gave the Government very wide negative powers, and, in addi- tion, positive work with the press was very much more thoroughly undertaken. The Government press organization was central- ized in the Kriegspresseamt, and there presided over it until 1916 Herr Otto Hamann (see his reminiscences, Der Neue Kurs and Zur Vorgeschichte des Weltkrieges), who had served in a similar capacity under Bismarck and Caprivi. It was the function of this central office not only to control the working of the censor- ship, but also to supply material for articles, give the " directives " to the German newspaper press as a whole, and ensure, so far as seemed desirable, the uniformity of treatment of all current political, military, naval and economic questions. The party political sympathies of individual papers were, as a rule, not interfered with, and throughout the war such a paper as the Berliner Tageblatt, for example, found opportunity of expressing views on such questions as the annexation of Belgium, which appeared to be opposed to the policy of the General Staff, and in any case in violent disagreement with the papers of the Right. Certain individual reviews, also, such as Maximilian Harden's
Zukunft, took and at times seemed deliberately to be allowed to take views which might have seemed almost subversive of the Government's policy. But on the whole a certain general discipline was maintained practically until the end of the war. (For a full account of the way in which the system worked, see Wie wir belogen wurden, by Dr. Kurt Miihsam.)
There was increasing complaint against the censorship and governmental controlgenerallyin the Radical and Socialist papers, but the majority of the press accepted the restraints patiently, and several, as, for example, the Hamburger Fremdenblatt, of which an edition in numerous languages was produced for propaganda purposes, lent themselves or their correspondents readily to that elaborate German propaganda organization during the war, whose ramifications were to be found in every country.
As might be expected, the lines of party divisions in the press were not so sharp during the war as before, but they were by no means obliterated. The interests of the Conservatives were prin- cipally represented by the Deutsche Tageszeitung (Berlin), with its preoccupation with the East and the claims of the German land- owning classes, and the Neue Preussische Zeitung (or Kreuz Zeitung, Berlin). The chief Free Conservative paper was Die Post. Non- party Nationalism and Annexatipnism were voiced by the Tagliche Rundschau (Berlin) ; the annexation policy was also advocated, for obvious reasons, by the Rheinisch-Westphdlische Zeitung, which in party politics is National Liberal. Other National Liberal organs were: the Kolnische Zeitung the most important of them all, the Leipziger Neueste Nachrichten, Hamburger Nachrichten, Berliner Neueste Nachrichten, and Dusseldorfer Neueste Nachrichten. Among newspapers with no particular party axe to grind, although mainly reactionary and jingo in foreign politics, were the Deutsche Zeitung and the Lokal-Anzeiger (Berlin), which has a second daily edition published under the title, Der Tag, chiefly noteworthy for its sensa- tional news stories and the open platform it provided for the expres- sion of all kinds of opinions; other papers of the Jewish Ullstein group were the Berliner Morgenpost, Berliner Zeitung am Mittag and the Vossische Zeitung. This last, under the foreign editorship of Georg Bernhard, chiefly distinguished itself by its advocacy of the so-called " Kontinentalpolitik," that is, the formation of a con- tinental bloc, under German leadership, against Great Britain and the United States.
During the war, and afterwards, the Centre party continued to be represented principally by Germania (Berlin) and the Kolnische Volkszeitung, and by the Bayrische Kurier (Munich) in Bavaria. The Frankfurter Zeitung and the Berliner Tageblatt held their place as the two chief Radical papers, the former maintaining its technical excellence, the latter continuing under the editorship of Theodor Wolff. In both Jewish influences remained predominant. The Social Democratic press shared in the difficulties and dissensions of the Social Democratic party during the war. Vorwdrts was sup- pressed for a short time by the censorship, but was later allowed to reappear conditionally. When the divisions between the majority and minority increased, the staff of the paper sided with the latter, and it was only after a struggle that the majority succeeded in recapturing the paper for their views. At the end of the war, the division in the ranks not having been closed up, the minority or Independents founded Die Freiheit, while their members still further to the Left later to issue as the Communist party established Die Rote Fahne. Other after-the-war changes worth noting were the disappearance of the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, which reappeared as a non-official paper entitled Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, later to be drawn, with several other papers, into the orbit of the industrialist magnate, Hugo Stinnes.
The chief German reviews at the end of 1920 were: the Preus- sische Jahrbucher (from the editorial chair of which Dr. Hans Del- briick retired in 1920), the Neue Rundschau predominantly liter- ary, but with occasional important political articles, the Conserva- tive Deutsche Politik and Grenzboten, the Democratic Demokratisches Deutschland, the Radical Hilfe (whose editor, Friedrich Naumann, died during 1920), the Socialist Neue Zeit and the Nationalist-Social- ist Sozialistische Monatshefte and Die Glocke.
A very considerable number of German newspapers were pro- duced by the German armies on all fronts during the war, of which the best known was the Litter Kriegszeitung; the Gazette des Ardennes was a German propagandist newspaper issued for the population in the occupied French districts. A complete hand-list of German newspapers, with particulars of place, date of publication and so forth, was issued by the Kriegspresseamt in 1917 under the title Handbuch Deutscher Zeitungen, edited by Oskar Michel, a supple- ment to which appeared in 1918. For the Socialist press reference may be made to Mr. Edwyn Bevan's book, German Socialism during the War (1919).
(5) ITALY. From 1911 onwards the press" in Italy increased largely in numbers and influence. In 1917 there were 807 political newspapers, of which 119 were dailies. Most of these were, it is true, chiefly of local importance and not read widely
