Set og hort (1917), Ibsen og Bjornson paa scenen, Franske visiler, Norsk teater (1920).
The realistic romance in vogue during 1870-80 retained some talented votaries in Norway, above all in Johan Bojer (b. 1872), who discusses modern problems in the romances Liv (1911), Den Store Hunger (1916), Verdens Ansigt (1917), Dyrendal (1919). Samlede romaner ogforlaellinger (1917), and also in the plays Troens magt (1910) and Sigurd Braa (1916). Bojer's works are translated into English (The Great Hunger, The Power of a Lie), French and German ; and a collection was published in America (Gade, Johan Bojer, The Man and his Work, New York, 1920). Nils Collett Vogt has con- tinued the tradition of Wergeland and Bjornson. For the centenary celebration he wrote an impressive cantata swelling with patriotism. His poetic collection Hjemkomst (1917) gives a beautiful expression of joy at returning home after many years' exile.
The more modern school of romance has two typical writers in Sigbjorn Obstfelder and Thomas P. Krag. Of these Obstfelder is the more piquant and original. His books were little noticed during his lifetime. His whole works only comprise two volumes (standard edition, 1921). All his writings are characterized by a peculiar artlessness, and the profundity of a solitary thinker. Thomas P. Krag (1868-1913) is better known. His stones have a delicate lyri- cism which lends them charm. In his religious romance Gunvor Kjeld he displays his first character-painting. His brother Wilhelm Krag has also displayed considerable productivity.
Of the younger lyric writers who came to the front during 1910-20, Herman Wildenvey, Olaf Bull and Arnulf Overland are the best known. Wildenvey (b.i886) heralds a new flowering in Norwegian lyrics. His graceful and captivating buoyancy secured him public favour from the outset (Digte, 1908). Olaf .Bull's poems (Samlede Digte, 1919) are virile and reflective. Arnulf Overland is character- ized by a strongly self-critical spirit.
Most of the newer Norwegian novelists have deserted " problems " for realistic delineation. Peter Egge (b. 1869) began with pictures of folk-life in the form of narratives, Nordfra, Trondere, De graa haar, and plays, Faddergaven and Jakob og Kristoffer. From these pictures of folk-life he went on to romance in Hjerter (his chief book, 1907), Laenken, Villaen, Unge dage, and the witty comedy Kjcerlighet og venskap. Later plays are Felen, Idyllen, Brist and Narren, soul- dramas recalling Ibsen.
Tryggve Andersen (1867-1920) is a narrator of high rank. His first book, I cancelliraaden dage (1897), was a series of lively interiors from the broad country of Mjosen at the commencement of the igth century. His second, Mot kvizld^ (1900), deals with the last struggle of a poor and homeless soul-sick man to attain the balance and substance of life. His stories Gamle folk (1904), Bispesonnen (1907) and Hjemfard (1913), with other writings, are collected in Samlede fort&llinger (3 vols. 1916).
Kristian Elster, the younger (b. 1881), is a writer of a different style, but a robust artist. His best work is in the three consecutive narratives Ilaere, Landeveien and Mester, which give expression to his warm sympathy with the poor and oppressed. His critical essays are collected in Fra tid til anden (1920).
The popular humorist Jacob Hilditch maintained his reputation during later years, the best of his work being collected in Sjofor- tallinger (1906) and Fortcellinger fra folklivet (1908).
Hjalmar Christensen (b. 1869) has produced a series of narratives, Fra Vestlandet, Fogedgaarden (1911), Brodrene (1912), En gamle bygd (1913), Den nye bygd (1914), Far og son (1915), El liv (1916), Tuntmet (1917), Deemring (1918), which are collected in Samlede Romaner (1920). Together with F. E. Christensen (b. 1872) he also wrote Fcedrelandet i verdenskrigen lys (1916), a frank historico- political account of Norway's position in the World War.
Among the younger generation an outstanding figure is Johan Falkberger (b. 1879), a mine-worker who became editor of a Socialist paper, in which he wrote many sketches from the lives of the workers. He then produced in rapid succession a series of narratives, Svarte Fjelde (1907), Urtidsnat (1909), Fakkelbrand (1909), Eli Sjursdotter (1913)- His Lisbet paa Jarnfjeld (1915) is remarkable for its power and pathos. Oskar Braaten (b. 1881) in like manner worked himself up from a lower station, and his subject is the working population of the suburbs of Christiania; he writes in a popular language of East- lands colouring, resembling the landsmaal.
Gabriel Scott (b. at Leith, Scotland, 1874), who had already made ai* debut at the close of the igth century, came to the front again with his comedy Himmeluret (1905), an excellent piece of psychology in Camilla Dyring (1906), and the witty Babels Taarn (1910), depicting the struggle between the landsmaal and the rigsmaal. Del Flyvende Bord (1906) is a story of adventure; and the romances Jernbyrden, Enok Rubens Levnedslob and Kilden deal with life in olden times on the coast of southern Norway.
The gifted authoress Ragnhild Jolsen (1875-1908), in her narratives Ve s Mor, Rikka Can, Fernanda Mona, Brukshistorier, Hollasas Kronikel, has left some characteristic pictures of the Norwegian eastern countryside. And among the women writers who have followed her the most important is Sigrid Undset, whose stories and romances have been collected in five volumes (1921).
As a wit and satirist, Nils Kjaer (b. 1870) has taken a leading place, notably through his dramas Regnskapets Dag, and Del Lykkelige
Valg. A complete edition of Kjaer's dramatic and critical works was being issued in 1921-2. Sigurd Mathiesen (b. 1871), whose earlier stories Unge sjcde, Hide Unas and Nag were followed in 1919 by the romance Francis Rose, showed himself to be a true poet in his col- lected verse, Gjennem aarene.
The cosmopolitanly inclined Seblein Lieblein (b. 1866), son of the famous Egyptologist, J. D. C. Lieblein (1827-1911), has written a number of entertaining stories, notably Den sisste av sin slegt (1910) and Peter Flytt's^ haendelser. Another author international in thought and choice of material is Eilert Bjerke (b. 1887), among whose works are the novels Mennesker og fanner (1909), Fri Fugle (1910), Meteorer (1918), Livsfyrsten (1914) and Svarmere i Solen (1917)-
Sigurd Wesley Christiansen (b. 1891), beginning with Seiren (1915) and Thomas Hergel (1917), proved his talent for fiction by Vorl Eget Liv (1918), and for drama by Offerdoden (1918). Ronald Fangen (b. 1896) likewise in 1915 produced his first romance De Stake, following it with Slegt foder slegt (1916) and En Roman (1918). His essays, Streiftog i digtning og taenkning (1919), show him also to be a subtle critic of literature. In 1921 his first play, Syndefald, was produced at the National theatre in Christiania.
Jens Tvedt ranks highest among the landsmaal writers, with his sketches of western Norway country life. Among other writers in landsmaal Olav Dunn (b. 1876) takes a leading place with his ro- mances Paa Lyngsoia, Juvikingarne, and I Blinda, The chief lyri- cist of the landsmaal is Anders Hovden (b. 1860), and the younger generation is well represented by Kristoffer Uppdal (b. 1878).
(S.C.H.)
NOSKE, GUSTAV (1868- ), German Socialist leader and former Republican Minister of National Defence, was born July 9 1868 at Brandenburg. He was by occupation a worker in wood, but took to writing for Social Democratic newspapers, and was from 1897 to 1902 on the staff of the Kdnigsberger Volkszeitung and afterwards on that of the Volksslimme at Chemnitz. At the end of the latter year he returned to Brandenburg, where he was elected a member of the municipal council and in 1906 a member of the Reichstag. Throughout the World War he belonged to the Governmental section of the Socialists, and voted in the Reichstag for the war credits. When in the first week of Nov. 1918 the mutiny, which had broken out in the navy at Kiel, developed into sanguinary street fighting and the naval authorities were unable to restore order, Noske was sent to Kiel with the Democratic Secretary of State, Hausmann, and, after a conference with representatives of the sailors and dockyard workers, arranged a suspension of hostilities on the basis of the sailors', soldiers' and workmen's demands. This triumph of the mutiny was the beginning of the German revolution, and the sailors from Kiel and other northern ports carried the idea of Workmen's and Soldiers' Councils throughout the north of Germany and ultimately to Berlin. Noske was appointed governor of Kiel, where he remained until he was recalled on Feb. n 1919 to assume the office of Minister of National Defence (Reichswchrminislcr) and to organize military forces for the suppression of the Communist insurrections in the capital. In his book Von Kiel bis Kapp (1920) he gives an account of the difficulties which he encountered in getting together an efficient army for home defence. He had to accept the services of many ex-officers whose hearts were with the old regime, and he also found it difficult and, in some cases impos- sible, to dissolve reactionary Free Corps like those which returned from the Baltic provinces or like Ehrhardt's Marine Brigade. His dependence upon troops and leaders of this character facilitated the military insurrection under Gen. von Luttwitz which supported the Kapp coup of March 13 1920. Noske appealed in vain to the troops in Berlin to resist the occupation of the capital by the forces which Luttwitz led from the camp at Doberitz. He was one of those ministers who, with President Ebert and Chancellor Bauer, fled from Berlin to Dresden, and afterwards to Stuttgart. After the suppression of the Kapp troubles and the return of the Ministry to Berlin it was impos- sible for Noske to remain in office, as the labour masses, who by the general strike against the Kapp " Government " had for the moment obtained a decisive influence upon affairs, regarded him as having been too tolerant of reaction in the army and as having manifested excessive ruthlessness in the suppression of the Communist bands. Noske, notwithstanding the genuineness of his Republican and Social Democratic opinions, enjoyed con-
